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psychology
chapters 5-8
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| sensation | the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment, |
| perception | the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, transforming it into meaningful objects and events |
| transduction | changing one form of energy into another. in sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret |
| absolute threshold | the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time |
| subliminal | below our absolute threshold for conscious awareness |
| difference threshold | the minimum difference between 2 stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. we experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (or jnd) |
| sensory adaption | reduction sensitivity in response to constant stimulation |
| perception set | a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another |
| sight=vision sounds=audition | waves-(light for vision and sound for audition) |
| smell=olfaction taste=gustation | particles-(sensing chemicals for olfaction and gustation) |
| touch=touch | pressure, warmth, cold on the skin |
| body position and movement | changes in position, interacting with vision movements of fluids in the inner ear |
| feature detector | nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of a stimulus, such as edges, lines, and angles (able to recognize faces) |
| prosopagnosia | failure to recognize faces; they know they are looking at a face, but cannot tell who the face is even if it's their own or that of a friend or relative (can't recognize faces) |
| synesthesia | a mixing of sensory information, (taste and smell closely related) anytime you hear something you can see a color |
| parallel processing | the processing of many aspects of a problem or scene at the same time; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision |
| kinesthesia | the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts |
| audition | the sense or act of hearing |
| vestibular sense | the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance; even if we can't see our body, we know what position we are still in |
| Learning | the process of acquiring, through experience, new and relatively enduring information or behaviors. |
| classical conditioning | a type of learning in which we learn to like two or more stimuli and anticipate events |
| acquisition a classical conditioning | the initial stage, when we link a neutral stimulus (NS) begins triggering the conditioned stimulus (US) so that the neutral stimulus (NS=CS) begins the conditioned response (CR). In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response); |
| NS->No response Before conditioning | Neutral stimulus (lightning) ->No Response + US (thunder) ->UR=cry |
| US->UR=? before conditioning | Unconditioned stimulus->Unconditioned Response |
| NS + US->UR=? during conditioning | NS (lightning) + US (thunder)->UR=crying |
| NS->CS->CR=? after conditioning | NS + CS (lightning)->CR=cry |
| NS=Neutral Stimulus | a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning |
| US=Unconditioned Stimulus | a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically-triggers a response |
| UR=Unconditioned Response | an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an US (unconditioned stimulus) |
| CS=Conditioned Stimulus | an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response |
| CR=Conditioned Response | a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus |
| Generalization | the tendency, after conditioning, to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus (CS); response to anything similar |
| Discrimination | the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and other irrelevant stimuli; learning to distinguish between conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli |
| Extinction | the weakening of a conditioned response (CR) when an unconditioned stimulus (CS) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); hold back stimuli when using the conditioned stimuli |
| Spontaneous Recovery | the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response (CR); the reappearance of the conditioned response |
| Operant Conditioning | a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforce or diminished if followed by a punisher |
| The major researcher of the operant chamber or "Skinner box" | B. F. Skinner |
| Reinforcement | any event that strengths the behavior It follows |
| Punishment | an event that decreases/weakens the behavior it follows |
| Schedules of Reinforcement | a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced |
| the -> )Variable Ratio> <- the amount same-> <-of time | number of tries stay the same is a fixed number of tries changes is a variable |
| Fixed-Ratio Schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinrforcement schedule that reinforces response only after a specific number of responses |
| Variable-Ratio Schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces after an unpredictable number of responses. |
| Fixed-Interval Schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses |
| Variable-Interval Schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. |
| Positive Reinforcement | increases behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. a positive reinforce is anything that, when presented after a response, strengths the response |
| Negative Reinforcement | increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. a negative reinforce is anything that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (NOTE: NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT IS NOT PUNISHMENT) |
| Shaping | an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide actions closer and closer toward a desired behavior |
| Cognitive Learning | the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language |
| The major researcher of cognitive learning is | Albert Banura-he did the Bobo doll experiment |
| Modeling | the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior |
| Memories | the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information |
| Iconic Memory | visual sensory memory |
| Echoic Memory | auditory sensory memory |
| Sensory Memory | the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. |
| Short-term Memory | activated memory that holds a few items briefly (such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing) before the information is stored or forgotten. ( won't last very long and it can't hold very much) |
| Working Memory | a newer understanding of short-term memory that stresses conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory |
| Long-term Memory | the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experience |
| Explicit Memory | memory of facts and personal events you can consciously retrieve. (also called declarative memory); episodes of that we an tell people about |
| Implicit Memory | retaining learned skills, or classically conditioned associations, without conscious awareness (also called nondeclarative memory); can't show but already know and some comes from people or movies. |
| Automatic Processing | unconscious encoding of everyday information, such as space, time, frequency, and well-learned word meaning |
| Effortful Processing | encoding that requires attention and conscious effort |
| Spacing Effect | the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice (remember a little at a time) |
| Testing Effect | enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information(have to think about it to be able to retrieve it) |
| Serial-Position Effect | the tendency to recall best the last and first items of a list (switch up how you study) |
| Flashbulb Memory | a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event (something that big happens) |
| Recall | memory demonstrated by retrieving information learned earlier, as on a multiple-choice test; memory demonstrated by retrieving information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test |
| Recognition | memory demonstrated by identifying items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test |
| Retrieval Cue | any stimulus (event, feeling, place, and so one) linked to a specific memory |
| Deja vu | that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience; it has a lag time |
| Proactive Interference | the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information; old information messes with new information |
| Retroactive Interference | the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of new information; new information messes with old information |
| Repression | in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness the thoughts, feelings, and memories that arouse anxiety |
| Cognition | all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating |
| Thinking | every time you use information and mentally act on it by forming ideas, reasoning, solving problems, drawing conclusions, expressing thoughts, or comprehending the thoughts of others; mental-form a vision of something |
| Mental Image | mental representation of a previously stored experience; includes all five senses-visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, motor, tactile imagery |
| Concept | a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, and people |
| Language | our spoken, written, or signed words ad the ways we combine them to communicate meaning |
| Algorithms | a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees you will solve a particular problem (ex: step-by-step description for evacuating a building during a fire) |
| Heuristics | simple thinking strategies that often allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms (such as running for an exit when you smell smoke) |
| Insight | a sudden realization of the solution to a problem ( an Aha! reaction) |
| Availability Heuristic | estimating the likelihood of an event based on its availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we assume such events are common (not based on how likely they are to actually occur) |
| Fixation | the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; fixation-mental sets or functional fixesnessive |
| Confirmation Bias | a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort evidence that contradicts them |
| Overconfidence | the tendency to be more confident than correct-to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments; have to see facts |
| Framing | the way an issue is posed; framing can significantly affect decisions and judgments; can mean the same thing like Obama-care and affordable care |
| Belief Perseverance | clinging to beliefs and ignoring evidence that proves they are wrong; people are actually watching you. |
| Intelligence | mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. |
| Intellectual Disability | a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence test score of 70 or below and difficulty adapting to the demands of life (Formerly referred to as mental retardation) |
| Savant Syndrome | a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing |
| What determines a good test? | Standardization |
| Standardization | defining scores by comparing them with the performance of a pretested standardization group ( must have norms and instructions must be uniform) |
| Reliability | the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting |
| Validity | the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to |
| Stereotype Threat | a self-confirming concern that we will be judged based on a negative stereotype |
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