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PSYCH 100
Psych 100 Final
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Social Psychology | the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another |
| Attribution Theory | -Fritz Heider -The theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition |
| Dispositional Attribution | attribute to the the person's stable, enduring traits |
| Situational Attribution | attribute to the situation |
| Fundamental Attribution Error | overestimate personality, underestimate situation |
| Peripheral Route Persuasion | -occurs when people are influenced by peoples incidental cues -such as a speaker's attractiveness |
| Central Route Persuasion | occurs when people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts |
| Foot-In-The-Door | the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply with a larger request |
| Role | a set of expectations(norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave |
| Cognitive Dissonance Theory | -The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent -EX. When we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting discomfort by changing our attitudes |
| Conformity | adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard |
| Social Facilitation | Stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others |
| Social Loafing | The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal when individually accountable |
| Deindividualization | Loss of self-awareness in group situations |
| Group Polarization | Beliefs and attitudes we bring to the group grow stronger as discussed |
| Group Think | Harmonious but unrealistic group thinking |
| Democratic | -Highest levels of motivation -Worked best |
| Autocratic | -Made all decisions by themselves -Boys worked hardest -More aggressive |
| Laissez-faire | -Allow complete freedom -Little was accomplished |
| Prejudice | -Means "prejudgement" -An unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members -Three-part mixture of beliefs(stereotypes), emotions, and predisposition to discriminatory action |
| Stereotype | a generalized belief about a group of people |
| Discrimination | Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members |
| Just-World Phenomenon | The tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get |
| In-group | -"Us" -people with whom we share a common identity |
| Outgroup | -"Them" -those perceived as different or apart from our in-group |
| In-group Bias | The tendency to favor our own group |
| Scapegoat Theory | The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame |
| Learning | A relatively permanent change in behavior due to environment |
| Associative Learning | -Learning that certain events occur together -The events may be two stimuli or a response and its consequence |
| Stimulus | -any event or situation that evokes a response -thing that causes behavior |
| Response | -behavior |
| Behaviorism | -The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes -Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2) -Behaviorists only study overt behavior |
| Classical Conditioning | -Associative -S + S --> R -pairing of 2 stimuli occurring in the same environment -involuntary behaviors <-- ANS |
| Respondent Behavior | behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus |
| Neutral Stimulus | -Thing before conditioning that doesn't naturally cause behavior -becomes CS |
| Unconditioned Response | -Behavior naturally occurring to a US |
| Unconditioned Stimulus | -Thing before conditioning that naturally causes behavior or UR |
| Conditioned Stimulus | -Formerly a NS -Thing after conditioning that causes CR |
| Conditioned Response | -Behavior after conditioning -Caused by CS (formerly NS) |
| Acquisition (CC) | -initial learning of the stimulus-response relationship -when one links a NS and a US so that the NS begins triggering the CS |
| Extinction (CC) | -the diminishing of a conditioned response -occurs in CC when a US does not follow a CS |
| Acquisition (OC) | the strengthening of a reinforced response |
| Extinction (OC) | when a response is no longer reinforced |
| Spontaneous Recovery (CC) | the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response |
| Generalization (CC) | the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses |
| Discrimination (CC) | the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus |
| Operant Conditioning | -a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher -Voluntary, somatic -Antecedents --> Behavior--> Consequence |
| Law of Effect | -Thorndike -behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely |
| Shaping (OC) | reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior |
| Reinforcement | increase behavior |
| Punishment | decrease behavior |
| Positive Reinforcement | The presentation of a desired/appetitive consequence that results in an increase in the future likelihood of that behavior |
| Negative Reinforcement | The removal of an undesired/aversive consequence that results in an increase in the future likelihood of that behavior |
| Positive Punishment | The presentation of an undesired/aversive consequence that results in a decrease in the future likelihood of that behavior |
| Negative Punishment | The removal a a desired/appetitive consequence that results in a decrease in the future likelihood of that behavior |
| Reinforcement Schedule | a patter that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced |
| Continuous Reinforcement | reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs |
| Fixed-Interval | -reinforces a response only after after a specified time has elapsed -same, time |
| Fixed-Ratio | -reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses -same, # of behaviors |
| Variable-Interval | -reinforces a responses at unpredicted time intervals -average, time |
| Variable-Ratio | -reinforces a response after an unpredicted number of responses -average, # of behaviors |
| Problems with Punishment | -Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten -Punishment teaches discrimination among situations -Punishment can teach fear -Physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems |
| Mirror Neurons | -frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so -the brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy |
| Memory | the persistence of learning over tim through the storage and retrieval of information |
| Recall | a m-retrieving info that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time -fill in the blank test |
| Recognition | -identifying items previously learned -multiple choice test |
| Relearning | -learning something more quickly when learning it a second time |
| Three Measures of Retention | -Recall -Recognition -Relearning |
| Information-Processing Models | analogies that compare human memory to a computers operations |
| Encoding | get info to our brain |
| Storage | retaining information that we encoded |
| Retrieval | later on getting info out of our storage |
| Atkinson & Shiffrin Levels of Processing Model | -three-stage model to explain our memory-forming process 1. record to-be-remembered info as a fleeting sensory memory 2. process info into STM, where we encode it through rehearsal 3. info moves into LTM for later retrieval |
| Sensory Memory | immediate, very brief recording of sensory info in the memory system |
| Short-Term Memory | -activated memory that holds a few brief items -such as 7 digits of a phone number while dialing |
| Long-Term Memory | -the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system -includes knowledge, skills, and experiences |
| Working Memory | a newer understanding of STM that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial info, and of info retrieved from LTM |
| Iconic Memory | a fleeting sensory memory of visual stimuli |
| Echoic Memory | a fleeting sensory memory of auditory stimuli |
| Explicit Memory | -declarative memory -memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare |
| Implicit Memory | -nondeclarative memory -retention independent of conscious recollection |
| Effortful Processing | -encoding that requires attention and conscious effort -processess explicit memories |
| Automatic Processing | -happens without our awareness -produces implicit memories unconscious encoding of incidental info such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned info, such as word-meaning |
| Spacing Effect | the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice |
| Shallow Processing | -encoding on a very basic level -such as a word's letters or sound |
| Deep Processing | -encodes semantically -based on the meaning of the word |
| Hippocampus | -neural center located in the limbic system -helps process explicit memories for storage |
| Frontal Lobe | -explicit memories -left and right process different types of memories -left: recalling a password and holding it in working memory -right: calling up a visual party scene |
| Cerebellum | -implicit memories -forming and storing implicit memories created by classical conditioning |
| Basal Ganglia | -implicit memories -deep brain structures involved in motor movement -facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills -learning how to ride a bike |
| Amygdala | -emotion-related memory formation |
| Long-Term Potentiation | -an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation -believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory |
| Priming | the activation, often unconsciously, of particular association in memory |
| Mood-Congruent Memory | the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood |
| Serial Position Effect | our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list |
| Retrieval Cues | bits of info that you can later use to access info for a memory |
| Semantics | meaningfullness |
| Massed vs. Distributed Practice | -distributed works better |
| Anterograde Amnesia | an inability to form new memories |
| Retrograde Amnesia | an inability to retrieve info from one's past |
| Ecoding Failure | we cannot remember what we have not encoded |
| Ebbinghaus' Forgetting Curve | the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time |
| Retrieval Failure | -sometimes even stored info cannot be accessed, which leads to forgetting -retrieval problems contribute to the occasional memory failures of older adults, who more frequently are frustrated by tip-of-the-tongue forgetting |
| Proactive Interference | old info interferes with new |
| Retroactive Interference | new info interferes with ability to remember old info |
| Misinformation Effect | incorporating misleading info into one's memory of an event |
| Source Amnesia | attributing to the wrong source of an event we have heard about, experienced, read about, or imagined |
| Phonemes | the smallest distinctive sound unit |
| Morphemes | the smallest unit that carries meaning |
| Grammar | system of rules that enables us to communicate with an understand others |
| Syntax | set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences |
| Babbling Stage | -4 months -babbles many speech sounds -babbling resembles household language ("Ma-ma") |
| One-Word Stage | -from age 1 to 2 -child speaks mostly in single words |
| Two-Word Stage | -beginning at age 2 -child speaks mostly two-word statements |
| Telegraphic Speech | child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs |
| Aphasia | -impairment of language -usually caused by left-hemisphere damage |
| Broca's Area | -controls language expression -left frontal lobe -directs the muscle movements involved in speech |
| Wernicke's Area | -controls language reception -left temporal lobe -involved in language comprehension and expression |
| Linguistic Determinism | Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think |
| 3 Ways We Forget | 1. Encoding Failure 2. Storage Decay 3. Retrieval Failure |
| STM Decay | unless rehearsed, verbal info may be quickly forgotten |
| Flashbulb Memory | Clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event |
| Ebbinghaus' Retention Curve | As rehearsal increases, relearning time decreases |
| Effortful Processing Strategies | -chunking -mnemonics -hierarchies |
| Concepts | -basic components of a thought -mental grouping of similar things |
| Symbols | mental representations of something |
| Prototypes | mental image of best example of a category |
| Metacognition | thinking about how you think |
| Insight | sudden realization of a problem's solution |
| Conformation Bias | to search for info that supports what we think and ignore things that go against |
| Mental Set | -a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way -often a way that has been successful in the past |
| Hindsight Bias | you knew all along |
| Functional Fixedness | not flexible thinking |
| Availability Heuristic | estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory |
| Framing | the way an issue is posed |
| Overconfidence | the tendency to more confident than correct |
| Belief Perseverance | clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited |
| Parallel Processing | multi-tasking |
| Intelligence Test | assess people's mental abilities & compares them with others using numerical scores |
| Spearman's G | -a basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied academic areas -a general intelligence factor that underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test |
| Factor Analysis | -a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test -used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score |
| Savant Syndrome | a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as computation or drawing |
| Sternberg's Three Intelligences | -analytical -creative -practical |
| Gardner's Multiple Intelligences | our abilities are best classified into 8 independent intelligences, which include a broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts |
| Creativity | the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas |
| Emotional Intelligence | the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions |
| IQ | -Mental Age/Chronological Age X 100 -average score is 100 |
| Achievement Test | a test designed to assess what a person has learned |
| Aptitude Test | a test designed to predict a person's future performance |
| Standardization | defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group |
| Reliability | consistent results |
| Validity | a test that predicts what it is supposed to |
| Content Validity | the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest |
| Predictive Validity | the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict |
| Cohort | a group of people from a given time period |
| Crystallized Intelligence | -our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills -tends to increase with age |
| Fluid Intelligence | -our ability to reason speedily and abstractly -tends to decrease during late adulthood |
| Psychodynamic Theories | view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences |
| Psychoanalysis | Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts |
| Id | unconscious energy |
| Ego | -mostly conscious -makes peace b/t the id and the superego |
| Super ego | -preconscious -internalized ideals -what is morally right and wrong |
| Unconscious Influences | -libido -aggression -fear of death |
| Freuds Psychosexual Stages | the childhood stage of development during which the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones |
| Fixation | a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved |
| Identification | the process by which children incorporate their parent's values into their developing superegos |
| Defense Mechanisms | tactics that reduce or redirect anxiety by destroying reality |
| Repression | banishes from consciousness, anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories |
| Regression | Retreating to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated |
| Reaction Formation | switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites |
| Projection | Disguising one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others |
| Rationalization | offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one's actions |
| Displacement | shifting sexual or aggression impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person |
| Denial | refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities |
| Collective Unconscious | -Carl Jung -shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species history |
| Projective Test | a personality test that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics |
| Self-Actualization | -maslow -the process of fulfilling our potential |
| Self-Transcendence | meaning, purpose, and communion beyond the self |
| Unconditional Positive Regard | -Rogers -an attitude of total acceptance toward another person |
| Self-Concept | all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in an answer to the question "Who am I?" |
| Personality | stable, enduring traits which includes ways of behaving, thinking, emotional, and motivation |
| Eyesneck | -introversion/extroversion -stability/instability |
| Big 5 Theory | -CANOE -Conscientiousness -Agreeableness -Neuroticism -Openness to experience -Extraversion |
| Objective Tests | -more easily measured -right or wrong answers -EX: MMPI |
| Reciprocal Determinism | -Bandura -the interacting of influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment |
| Internal Locus of Control | the ability to take responsibility for a person's downfall and fix them |
| External Locus of Control | blaming others for you mistakes and not taking responsibility |
| Behavior Therapy | -therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors -based on the ideas of pavlov and skinner |
| Counterconditioning | -a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical condition to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors -includes exposure therapies and aversive therapies |
| Exposure Therapies | -type of counterconditioning -behavioral techniques that treat anxieties by exposing people to the things they fear and avoid -imagination or actual situations |
| Systematic Desensitization | -type of exposure therapy -associates a pleasant realized state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli -commonly used to treat phobias |
| Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy | -type of exposure therapy -anxiety treatment -progressively exposes people to electronic simulations of their greatest fears |
| Flooding | -type of exposure therapy -person is rapidly and intensely exposed to the fear -provoking situation or object and prevented from making the usual avoidance or escape response |
| Aversive Conditioning | -type of counterconditioning -associates an unpleasant state with an unwanted behavior |
| Token Economy | -operant conditioning procedure -people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats |
| Cognitive Therapy | -teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking -based on the assumption that thoughts intervene b/t events and our emotional reactions |
| Beck's Depression Therapy | -analyzed dreams of depressed people -found reoccurring negative themes that extended into their walking thoughts and therapy -sought to reverse clients' negative beliefs about themselves |
| Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) | -developed by Albert Ellis -confrontational cognitive therapy -vigorously challenges people's illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions -cognitive reconstructing |
| Resistance | -psychoanalysis -blocking from consciousness of anxiety -laden material |
| Interpretation | -psychoanalysis -analysts noting supposed dream meaning, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight |
| Transference | -psychoanalysis -the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships -such as love or hatred for a parent |
| Client-Centered Therapy | -humanistic therapy -Carl Rogers -therapists use techniques such as active-listening, accepting, empathetic environment to facilitate clients' growth |
| Active Listening | -feature of Roger's client-centered therapy -empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies |
| Manifest Content | description of a dream in detail |
| Latent Content | the true meaning of the dream which is hidden |
| Alfred Adler | -proposed the inferiority complex -agreed w/ freud that childhood is important -childhood social, not sexual, tensions are crucial for personality formation |
| Karen Horney | -agreed w/ freud that childhood is important -childhood social, not sexual, tensions are crucial for personality formation -women have weak superegos and suffer "penis envy" |
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htjacobs
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