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Geology Exam Review
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Liquefaction | Conversion of soil into a fluid-like mass during an earthquake. Mud comes through the cracks in the ground. |
| Richter Scale | Based on the amplitude of the largest earthquake wave recorded and the distance from the focus. (Works best for California) |
| Moment Magnitude Scale | Based on amplitude of different seismic waves, types of rock, more info. It is more accurate and universally accepted than the Richter scale. |
| What can Ground shaking cause? | It can: Disrupt electrical stations, destroy water and gas mains (causing fires), landslides, damaging highways, flooding, etc. |
| How can we help prepare for an earthquake? | Anchor buildings to their foundations, use structural steel when building, or isolate a building from the ground (shock absorbers) |
| Tsunami | Uplift of the seafloor will push a large volume of water upward. The mound of water then collapses to create a tsunami. Often occur after earthquakes. |
| How can we predict an earthquake short-term? | Foreshocks, tilt or elevation, monitoring ground distortion, changes in groundwater levels |
| Why is long-term prediction of earthquakes important? | You can strengthen building codes, modify zoning codes, position relief supplies, and prepare "first-responders" |
| Focus | Where the earthquake originated in the crust |
| Epicenter | The point above the focus, on the surface where the earthquake occurred |
| Contact Metamorphism | localized, caused by heat from an igneous intrusion, uniform stress, occurs at low pressure and high temperature Ex: Hornfels |
| Confining Pressure (uniform) | Stress is equal from all sides |
| Differential Pressure (directed) | Stress is not equal from all sides. (Forms foliation) |
| Regional Metamorphism | Caused by heat, fluids and differential stress, triggered by convergent plate collisions or at mid-ocean ridges, occurs at a high pressure and a low temperature, rocks become harder and more compact Ex: Gneiss |
| Foliation | Platy layers caused by differential stress Ex: Slate |
| Aftershocks | Smaller earthquakes that occur in the same area after the main earthquake |
| P-Waves | Primary waves, first to be detected, fastest, compression/extension |
| S-Waves | Secondary waves, slower, can only move through solids |
| Surface Waves | Most destructive, slowest waves, rocks move in all directions at once (complex motion) |
| Triangulation | Must have at least 3 seismic stations. The three circles intersect at the epicenter. |
| Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale | Qualitative, descriptive, good for historic earthquakes |
| Regression | Water pulls back from the land (drop in sea level) |
| Fossil Fuels | All are raw materials from organic matter |
| Coal | Formed from land/swamp plants in bogs or wetlands |
| Oil | Formed from phytoplankton in big warm lakes/tropical oceans |
| Is it easier to form a coal deposit or an oil deposit? | Coal |
| Bituminous Coal | Higher sulfur content (produces more heat than low sulfur coal) |
| Fracking | Getting oil from the source instead of from the reservoir rock |
| What are the two highest suppliers of oil to the US? | Mexico and Canada |
| Deformation | Involves the application of force to change the shape of the rocks (often causes folds) |
| How do rocks respond to stress? | Fault, Rotation, or Strain/Stress |
| Do temperature and pressure increase with depth? | Yes. (Geothermal gradient) |
| How does the rate of strain affect the rock's behavior? (Rapid vs. Slow) | Rapid build-up= rock breaks (fractures and faults are produced), brittle behavior Slow build-up: rock bends and folds, flows, ductile behavior |
| Brittle Behavior | Low temperature, shallow depths, low confining stress, high strain rates (rapid), harder rocks break more easily |
| Ductile Behavior | High temperature, deep depth, high confining stress, low strain rate (slow), softer minerals are more likely to flow |
| What are the main types of differential stress? | Compressional, Extensional (tension), Shear |
| Compression | Pushing together |
| Tension | Pulling apart |
| Shear | Sliding past each other |
| Joint | Crack where the rock is pulled apart |
| Fault | Where rocks slip past each other (Vertical faults are planar) |
| Strike | Where two planes intersect creating a line of intersection between the fault plane and the horizontal surface |
| Dip | Tilt of the plane |
| Strike-Slip Fault | Movement where the fault is parallel to the dip or tilt of the plane (Does not cause tsunamis) |
| Dip-Slip Fault | Parallel to the dip or tilt of the plane (causes tsunamis) |
| Oblique Slip Fault | Both perpendicular and parallel to strike, both types of movement |
| Normal fault | Type of dip-slip fault, happens at divergent boundaries, hanging wall goes down in respect to the footwall, (extension), younger rocks over older |
| Reverse fault | Type of dip-slip fault, happens at convergent boundaries, hanging wall goes up in respect to the footwall (compression), older rocks over younger |
| Thrust fault | Type of Reverse fault where fault plane is nearly flat/horizontal |
| Anticline | Arch-like fold formed by compressional stress |
| Syncline | Trench-like fold formed by compressional stress, more ductile behavior |
| Basin | Formed from a syncline |
| Dome | Formed from an anti-cline |
| Paleoseismology | Dig a trench and look for layers of rock that have been moved by fault movement during an earthquake. Find layers with remains of organic material that you can date |
| Seismic gaps | Segments of a fault that have not produced an earthquake. Faults are locks, higher probability of producing an earthquake |
| What does the US use water the most for? | Thermoelectric power and irrigation |
| Water table | Where water is the highest |
| Aquifer | Saturated rock through which water can flow |
| Artesian Aquifer | An aquifer that is bounded above and below by impermeable beds. |
| What does a good aquifer need? | High porosity (lots of holes) and high permeability (connected holes) |
| Geyser | Springs that erupt |
| Spring | Where groundwater naturally discharges from an aquifer (often hillsides or at faults) |
| What does metamorphism do? | Creates new minerals, new textures (grain-size or layering), chemical composition can be changed through liquids |
| Where does heat for metamorphism come from? | Friction, igneous intrusions, meteors, geothermal gradient (heat speeds up metamorphism and dries out the rocks) |
| Is metamorphism a solid-state process? | Yes |
| When does deposition occur? | When the transport is interrupted (wind or water slows down, stream flows into an ocean or lake) |
| What two things are needed for lithification to occur? | Compaction and Cementation |
| Graded Bedding | Finer grained materials remain in suspension whereas heavier ones sink to the bottom. (Flash floods, high energy to low energy) |
| Rhythmic Bedding | Caused by changing conditions related to variations in climate, alternated between clay and silt or sand |
| Cross-bedding | Typical of sand dunes, layers are tilted (not parallel) |
| Mudcracks | Water evaporates and the ground shrinks which causes mudcracks |
| Land subsidation | When the ground shrinks due to lack of water |
| Glaciers= well sorted or poorly sorted? | Poorly |
| Evaporites | Formed by minerals that crystallize as water evaporates like halite and gypsum |
| Transgression | Water advances onto land (rise in sea-level) |
| "Shock" Metamorphism | Heat and stress produced by a meteor impact, localized |
| Fault Zone Metamorphism | Deformation related to shear along fault, localized, frictional heating, breaks up into smaller grains, differential stress |
| Earthquake | Vibrations traveling through the earth caused by the sudden release of built-up strain within the Earth's crust |
| Elastic Rebound theory | When rocks break they return to their original shape even though they have moved position |
| Alluvial Fan | A low gently sloping mass of sediment shaped like an open fan deposited by a stream where it exits, often in desert environments |
| Delta | A nearly flat tract of land formed by deposition of sediment at the mouth of a river or stream |
| Hydrolisis | Produces clay, decomposition reaction involving water |
| Tributaries vs. Trunk Streams | Tributaries are smaller, trunk streams are the main streams |
| Watershed or drainage basin | region that feeds water into a stream |
| Dendritic Pattern | Flatland streams |
| Radial Patter | Flows like spokes off a wheel |
| Structurally controlled | Underlying folds of bedrock control where streams flow |
| From the headwater to mouth the depth and width ___________ | increase |
| Sediment and water volume ________ | increases (because the tributaries add water and sediment) |
| Velocity is more variable, but often fastest in the headwater area. T/F | T |
| As you go downstream there is bigger and rougher grain sediment. T/F | F (It is finer) |
| Braided streams | so much sediment that the stream must deposit while flowing |
| Cut banks | Strong current intersects with the side of the stream channel (a lot of erosion) |
| Point bars | Deposit of sediment because flow is slower |
| Base level | Usually sea level |
| Levees | Raised embankments along a river (can be manmade or natural) |
| Storm water retention ponds | Help keep floods from happening, there is one near meek |
| Sinkholes | Where ceilings of caves collapse, a closed circular depression |
| High grade regional metamorphism of granite produces: | Gneiss |
| Contact metamorphism of limestone produces: | Marble |
| Medium-grade regional metamorphism of shale produces: | Schist |
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