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AP Psych Unit 6

Chapter 8 Memory & Chapter 9 Cognition (Thinking & Language)

TermDefinition
Memory The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
Flashbulb Memory A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Encoding The processing of information into the memory system
Storage The retention of encoded information over time
Retrieval The process of getting information out of memory storage
Sensory Memory The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Short-Term Memory Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
Long-Term Memory The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
Working Memory A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
Automatic Processing Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.
Effortful Processing Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
Rehearsal The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
Spacing Effect The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
Next-in-line Effect When people go around in a circle or in order, when we are next in line we focus on our own performance and fail to process the last person's words
Serial Position Effect Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
Visual Encoding The encoding of picture images
Acoustic Encoding The encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
Semantic Encoding The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
Imagery Mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
Mnemonic Device Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Chunking Organizing items into manageable units; often occurs automatically
Hierarchies Visual representation into concepts and subcategories
Iconic Memory A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
Echoic Memory A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
Magical Number Seven Most people have a working memory that can hold seven things at a time plus or minus two, so some people can hold 5 things other as many as 9 things
Long-term Potentiation (LTP) An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning or memory
Amnesia The loss of memory
Implicit Memory (Procedural Memory) Retention independent of conscious recollection. It is made up of skills stored in the cerebellum
Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory) Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare". It is made up of both facts and personally experienced events and is stored in the hippocampus
Hippocampus Where explicit memory and declarative memory are stored
Recall A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier completely from scratch with no clues, as on the FRQs
Recognition A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned with some cues all you must do is recognize the correct answer. For instance multiple choice tests
Relearning A memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
Priming The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. Ask a friend two rapid-fire questions
Deja Vu That eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
Mood-Congruent Memory The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
Forgetting Inability to retrieve information for a variety of reasons. There are seven "sins" of forgetting
Absent-mindedness Inattention to details produces encoding failure and causes forgetting
Transience Storage decay over time and causes forgetting
Blocking inaccessibility of stored information and causes forgetting
Repression Motivated forgetting, it is one of Freud's defense mechanisms
Misattribution Confusing the source of information (also known as source amnesia) and cause confusion in memory
Suggestibility The lingering effects of misinformation cause confusion in memory
Bias Belief-colored recollections that cause confusion in memory
Misinformation effect Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
Persistence Unwanted memories that get in the way of old memories
Forgetting Curve Designed by Ebbinghaus who also proved that rehearsal works on encoding proved that information remembered drops radically in the first 30 days and then tappers off
Proactive Interference Type of blocking, Mnemonic PORN, proactive interference old information interferes with you trying to remember new information: can't remember new cell number because the old cell number keeps getting in the way
Retroactive Interference Type of blocking, Mnemonic PORN, retroactive interference is when new information interferes with the memory recall of old information. I.E. can't remember my old locker combination because my new one keeps getting in the way
Source Amnesia Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experience, heard about, read about, or imagined. Also known as misattribution.
Cognition The mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Concepts A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
Hierarchies Organizing our ideas into categories or subcategories
Definition Strict and specific rules that always explain the term
Prototypes A mental image or best example of a category. Easier way to categorize things rather than using definitions
Algorithm A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier--but also more error prone- use of heuristics
Heuristics A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
Insight A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Confirmation Bias A tendency to search for information that confirms one preconceptions
Fixation The inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving.
Mental Set A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.
Functional Fixedness The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving
Representativeness Heuristic Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent or match particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information
Availability Heuristic Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common
Overconfidence The tendency to be more confident than correct-to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments.
Framing The way that an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
Belief Bias The tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid
Belief Perseverance Clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
Intuition Is a process that gives us the ability to know something directly without analytic reasoning, bridging the gap between the conscious and nonconscious parts of our mind
Language Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
Phoneme In a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit (to talk on the phone you must use sounds)
Morpheme In a language, the smallest unit of language that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (m in morpheme, m for meaning)
Grammar In a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with an understand others
Semantics The set of rules by which we drive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning
Syntax The set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language.
Babbling Stage Beginning at about 4 months, this stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the house-hold language
One-word Stage The stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
Two-word Stage Beginning at about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements
Telegraphic Speech An early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram "go car" using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting auxiliary words.
Language Acquisition The process by which we acquire language. Noam Chomsky said that we all have a specific device, we are pre-programmed to learn language
Noam Chomsky Psychologist and philosopher who argued for the existence of a language acquisition device that suggests that all human beings are capable of learning language
Overgeneralizing Mistake children often make of over-applying grammatical rules incorrectly
Surface Structure The actual words of a sentence according to Noam Chomsky
Deep Structure The meaning of a sentence according to Noam Chomsky
Critical Period The idea that if you don't develop a skill by a certain point it will never develop completely. In humans many psychologists believe that Language acquisition has a critical period and that if it isn't developed by the age of seven it will never develop
Linguistic Determinism Whorf's theory that suggests that language changes and determines the ways in which we think
Bilingual Advantage The belief that learning a second language improves a person's cognitive functioning, including cognitive flexibility and executive functioning skills
Benjamin Whorf Linguistic theorist who believes that language determines the way in which we think, calls his hypothesis the Linguistic Determinism Theory
Connectionism Information processing model that views memories as products of interconnected neural networks. And particular memories arise from activation patterns within these neural networks
Atkinson & Shiffrin 3 Stage Memory Model 1. We first record to-be remembered info in sensory memory 2. We process information into short-term memory where we encode it through rehearsal 3. Information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval
The central executive As you integrate memory inputs with existing long-term memory, your attention is focuses which we call the central executive.
Sperling's Sensory Memory Studies Proved that sensory memory has a large capacity however it only lasts for very brief periods of time (short duration)
Testing Effect Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading information. Also sometimes referred to as 'retrieval practice effect' or 'test-enhanced learning'
Shallow Processing/Structural Encoding Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
Intermediate Processing/Phoenemic Encoding Encoding on an intermediate level based on the sound or system of sounds of words
Deep Processing/Semantic Encoding Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words, tends to yield the best retention
Self-reference effect We have especially good recall for information we can meaningfully relate to ourselves. More common in Western cultures that emphasize individualism and individual identity
Cerebellum Known as the "little brain" and sits at the base of the brain attached to the brainstem. It is involved in the processing of implicit/procedural memories
Retrieval cues Clues and associations that help us access the appropriate memories when we want them by placing ourselves in the original context.
Context-Dependent Memory Putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something can prime your memory and help determine what memories you will retrieve
State-Dependent Memory State-dependent memory is the idea that when we learn something in one conscious state it is often easiest to recall that memory when we are in a similar state
Mood Congruent Memory The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
Primacy Effect Part of the serial position effect which states that we will have an easy time remembering the first items in a LIST
Recency Effect Part of the serial position effect which states that we will have an easy time remembering the last items in a LIST
Anterograde Amnesia An inability to form new memories
Retrograde Amnesia An inability to retrieve information from one's past
Storage decay Studied by Ebbinghaus in what he called the forgetting curve he proved that sometimes memories that are stored do not last forever. He explained that the course of forgetting is originally rapid and then levels off with time.
Retrieval failure Inability to recall particular information at the exact moment it is requested. It is generally occasional and occurs more frequently with age
Elizabeth Loftus One of the most important experts on memory. She did most of her work in proving how faulty and susceptible to distortion or memories are by proving the existence of the misinformation effect
Misinformation effect Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.
Rehearsal Is our way of consciously repeating or going over information in our minds so that we can move information from working memory into long-term memory
Wolfgang Kohler Did the famous study where he proved that chimpanzee's had insight as well as humans. He did the experiment with "Sultan" the chimp where he put the food on the ceiling and the chimp had to move the boxes and stand on them to reach his food.
Aphasia An impairment of language that can result from damage to several cortical areas particularly the left-hemisphere damage to Broca's area and Wernicke's area
Broca's area Controls language expression-an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
Wernicke's area Controls language reception-a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.
Created by: thompsonce
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