Help
Options
Didn't know it?
click below
click below
Knew it?
click below
click below
Don't Know
Remaining cards (0)
Know
retry
shuffle
restart
0:00
Embed Code - If you would like this activity on your web page, copy the script below and paste it into your web page.
Normal Size Small Size show me how
Normal Size Small Size show me how
Psychology Exam #2
Chapter 4, 7, 6
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| sensation | -detection of physical energy -simple stimulation of organ of senses |
| transduction | -conversion of energy to neural impulses |
| perception | -determination of external stimuli from sensory stimulation -organization, identification, interpretation of sensation to form mental representation |
| 7 types of sensory systems | -vision -hearing -touch -taste -smell -balance/vestibular sense -proprioception/kinesthesis |
| distal stimulus | reflects/radiates energy |
| examples of distal stimuli | -light -sound -heat |
| proximal stimulus | what affects the sense organs |
| example of proximal stimulus | retinal image |
| example of proximal stimulus deception | movie theater surround sound |
| psychophysics (Fechner) | -relating physical properties to mental experiences -measuring stimulus & reactivity |
| detection | determining whether stimulus is present |
| absolute threshold | where stimulus detectable at least 50% of the time |
| subliminal threshold | where stimulus detectable less than 50% of the time |
| discrimination | detecting change in intensity/quality |
| just noticeable difference | -where smallest detectable change occurs -roughly proportional to magnitude of standard stimulus |
| Weber's law | -intensity/I = k (ratio) -JND is constant proportion despite variations in intensity |
| Fechner's law/sensation intensity | psi = klogI (logarithmic) |
| Steven's law | psi = kI^e (exponential) where "e" is slope and "k" is y-intercept |
| pathway of light into retina | cornea -> aqueous humor -> iris/pupil -> lens -> vitreous humor -> retina -> optic nerve |
| cornea | helps focus/distort light |
| sclera | white part of eye |
| aqueous humor | fluid-filled drainage system that also provides nutrients |
| lens | -flexible -distorts light due to presence of cells |
| ciliary muscles | -adjust shape of lens to allow focus -becomes stiffer as you get older -> takes lens longer to adjust |
| iris | -color part of eye -controls how much light enters |
| pupil | hole/nothing |
| vitreous humor | fluid-filled non-drainage system |
| floaters | things trapped in vitreous humor |
| retina | -layers (inner to outer): photoreceptors, bipolar cells, retinal gangliion cells |
| fovea | -central point of focus where most visual info is located -no rods here |
| optic nerve | -where all visual energy goes to be processed by brain -bundled RGC axons -travels to lateral geniculate nucleus (area VI) in thalamus |
| blind spot | -on optic nerve -no photoreceptors here |
| photoreceptors | -point to back of retina -info is super compressed -> detail lost -after ganglion & bipolar cells experience light -transduce light into neural impulses |
| cones | -majority in fovea -color processing/fine detail -need more light to function -rhodopsin photopigment |
| rods | -more than cones -B&W and light detection -majority in periphery -iodopsin photopigment |
| dark adaptation | -cones adapt faster, but eventually stop working -rod adapt slower, but can see in low-light |
| receptive fields | -help with edge detection -made of ganglion cells -fovea has larger field |
| on-center receptive field | -induce more firing -central excitatory zone |
| off-center receptive field | -suppress firing -central inhibitory zone |
| autokinetic effect | eye muscles moving to keep photoreceptors from fatigue |
| long wavelengths (colors & length) | red/orange; ~700nm |
| short wavelenghts (colors & length) | blue/purple; ~400nm |
| 3 components of color | -hue (dominant wavelength/color) -brightness (color intensity/amplitude) -saturation (how much of primary wavelength) |
| white light | all light present |
| subtractive mixture | -remove wavelengths b/c light waves are absorbed -produces black pigments |
| additive light | -adding light wavelengths -light reflective -produces white light |
| trichromatic vision | -Young-Helmholtz's theory -3 color receptors (red/photopsin I, green/photopsin II, blue/photospin III) -long wavelenghts = repressed firing -can determine wavelength based on firing rates of cones |
| color-blindness/color deficiency | missing cones or a part of difference network |
| photopigments | light sensitive molecules |
| cortical color vision | -in occipital lobe -color constancy (i.e. take different wavelengths into account to figure out color) |
| where do visual pathways begin? | area V1 of the brain (part of occipital lobe containing primary visual cortex) |
| ventral stream | -what the thing is (shape/identity) -travels across occipital lobe into lower temporal lobes |
| dorsal stream | -where the thing is (location/motion) -travels up occipital lobe into parietal & part of temporal lobe -plays a role in binding |
| how does pattern recognition work? | identify features & organize them |
| Gestalt organization principles (7) | -figure/ground -proximity (close together grouped together) -similarity (similar grouped together) -good continuation (follow through) -common fate (points that move together grouped together) -closure (fill gaps) -simplicity |
| binocular disparity | -2 types of images give info -good for close up things |
| convergence | closer something is, the more turned |
| 2 types of binocular cues | binocular disparity & convergence |
| monocular cues (8) | -relative size (closer, bigger) -familiar size (knowledge) -linear perspective (farther, closer) -occlusion/interposition (close covers farther) -texture gradient (coarser, closer) -motion parallax (closer, faster) -height on image (higher, farther) |
| 4 illusions associated with monocular cues | -Ponzo illusion -Muller-Lyer -moon illusion - moon at horizon looks larger than when it's overhead -waterfall illusion - perception of continuous movement makes things seem to be moving in opposite direction (due to fatigued neurons) |
| motion perception | deals with area MT of temporal lobe |
| phi phenomenon/common fate | -things are moving when they're actually not -movement is alternating signals appearing in rapid successions in different locations |
| 3 directions of perception | -bottom-up (based on world & data driven) -top-down (based on expectancies/what you know & conceptually driven, e.g. A or H, handwriting) -interactive (both) |
| feature detectors | -huge pool of different features -for bottom-up processing -in occipital lobe |
| simple cells | -first layer to respond to features in receptive field -e.g. brightness, thickness, movement |
| complex cells | -aggregate effects of simple cells -e.g. orientation, length |
| hypercomplex cells | -aggregates of complex cells -e.g. certain shapes |
| geons | -used for 3D assembly -recognition by components (RBC) -need vertices of objects to trigger -discovered by Biederman |
| autokinetic effect | light moves & can spell out letters/words |
| nativism on perception | ability/knowledge needed for perception is innate |
| empiricism on perception | ability/knowledge needed for perception is learned |
| evidence for empiricists' view (3) | -visual deprivation (restricting visual inputs to mature organism, e.g. cats in dark) -visual distortion (distorting normal vision in experienced organism, e.g. adaptation) -redirection of visual inputs (altering route of neural pathways) |
| synesthesia | perceptual experience of one sense evoked by another |
| most predominant sense | vision |
| noise | -other stimuli from internal/external environment -competes with ability to detect sensory stimuli -results in misperceptions |
| signal detection theory | -response to stimuli depends on sensitivity to stimulus in noise & on decision criterion -allows researchers to quantify response in noise -hit/miss(C)/false alarm(L)/correct rejection -measures perceptual sensitivity |
| perceptual sensitivity | how effectively the perceptual system represents sensory events |
| sensory adaptation | sensitivity to prolonged stimulation declines over time as one adapts |
| how is visual acuity measured? | with Snellen chart |
| accomodation | eye maintains clear image on retina |
| myopia | -nearsightedness -eyeball too long -focus is in front |
| hyperopia | -farsightedness -eyeball too short -focus is behind |
| bipolar cells | collect neural signals & transmit out |
| retinal ganglion cells | organize signals & send to brain |
| color afterimage | results when cones are fatigued |
| color opponent system | -pairs of visual neurons work in opposites -red/green -blue/yellow -could have evolved to produce better color perception |
| visual form agnosia | inability to recognize objects by sight |
| optic ataxia | difficulty using vision to guide movements |
| binding problem | how features are linked together so we see them as unified |
| illusory conjunction | features of multiple objects incorrectly combined |
| feature integration theory | focused attention not required to detect individual features but also bind them |
| modular view | specialized brain areas detect/represent objects |
| distributed representation | other parts besides specialized brain areas involved too |
| perceptual constancy | -aspects of sensory signals change but perception is consistent -allows for varying sensory input & noticing differences |
| image-based object recognition | -object seen before stored as template (mental representation directly compared to retinal image) -drawback: different templates for different orientations not plausible |
| parts-based object recognition | -brain deconstructs viewed objects into collection of parts -objects stored as structural descriptions in memory -limitation: only on level of categories & not individual objects |
| change blindness | fail to detect changes to visual details of scene |
| inattentional blindness | -failure to perceive objects not as focus of attention -conscious experience restricted to features/objects selected by focused attention |
| learning theory | -acquisition of new knowledge, skills, responses from experience that result in relatively permanent change in state -focus on stimulus/response associations -opposes equipotentiality principle |
| habituation | -reduced responding to stimulus that becomes familiar -e.g. clothes on skin, noise in room |
| basic paradigm of conditioning | -US -> UR (before) -NS -> US -> UR (conditioning) -CS -> CR (after) |
| Pavlov's apparatus | trying to understand digestion & its relationship to salivation (dog, saliva, meat, bell) |
| eye-blink conditioning | rabbit, air puff, light/tone |
| Shuttle box | dog, light, electrical shock |
| chemical processes of learning | -glutamate triggers AMPA receptors -Na+ enters & begins depolarization -NMDA receptors release Mg2+ allowing Ca2+ to flood in & making more AMPA receptors -pre/post-synaptic neurons more easily triggered |
| standard conditioning | -CS precedes US -overlap in time |
| simultaneous conditioning | -CS & US at same time -ineffective |
| backward conditioning | -US precedes CS -no learning occurs |
| delay conditioning | -CS precedes US -no overlap in time -learning slower -needs cerebellum |
| temporal conditioning | -CS = passage of time |
| contiguity | -time in which CS & US are presented -closer = easier to learn |
| contingency | -CS predictive -cause/effect relationship -needed for learning -hippocampus important here |
| stimulus/response associations | -stimulus/response (US -> R, CS -> R) -stimulus/stimulus (CS -> mental representation of US -> CR) |
| acquisition (CC) | -CS/US association/presented together -learning curve -CR probability increases gradually |
| extinction (CC) | -CS without US -behavior goes away |
| spontaneous recovery (CC) | -CS after delay brings back CR -stronger than it was at extinction but not at the beginning |
| savings (CC) | learn faster 2nd time |
| generalization (CC) | other similar CS can produce CR |
| discrimination (CC) | only narrow range of CS |
| higher order conditioning (CC) | -CS made meaningful & used as basis for more -CS1 -> CR -NS -> CS1 -> CR -CS2 -> CR -the farther from the original stimulus, the weaker the response |
| blocking (CC) | -first association blocks second -CS1 -> CR -CS1 = CS2 -> CR -CS2 X CR |
| Little Albert experiment (Watson) | -conditioned fear/emotional responses -CS = clown mask, white fluffy things -US = loud bang |
| example of conditioned emotional responses | phobias |
| systematic desensitization | gradual calming of conditioned emotional responses |
| learned helplessness | -blocks acquisition of new info -adaptive response |
| conditioned drug tolerance | -NS = room -US = heroin -UR/CS = high -different setting elicits greater effects on body b/c it isn't ready |
| operant/instrumental conditioning | learning based on voluntary/active behaviors & assessing their consequences |
| Thorndike's puzzle box | -cat in box, food, lever -shift in response strength to eliminate other actions |
| Law of Effect | -response consequences determine whether it's strengthened or weakened -positive = strengthened -negative/neutral = weakened |
| positive reinforcement | adding something desired |
| negative reinforcement | removing something unpleasant |
| positive punishment | adding something unpleasant |
| negative punishment | removing something unpleasant |
| what is the behaviorist/empiricist view? | everything based on experiences |
| primary reinforcers | -biological needs/desires -e.g. food, sex, social interaction |
| secondary/conditioned reinforcers | acquired needs/desires (e.g. $) |
| token economies | -operant method to control undesired behaviors -acceptable behaviors rewarded w/ tokens & exchanged for commodities -problem: tokens removed & behaviors stop |
| premack principle | -more preferred activities reinforce less preferred activities -will do what they like less to get what they like more |
| acquisition (OC) | -learning curve -slow at first & gets faster |
| extinction (OC) | -stop reinforcing & behavior goes away -response rate drops rapidly |
| generalization (OC) | apply behavior to similar situations |
| discrimination (OC) | narrow range only for certain situations |
| shaping (OC) | -rewarding successive approximations until desired behavior achieved -gives rise to superstitious behavior |
| biological constraints | -preparedness (some things organisms won't do) -belongingness (easier to learn associated behaviors) |
| example of biological constraints | - |
| example of biological constraint | taste aversion theory (bright/shock*, bright/sick, sweet/shock, sweet/sick*) |
| how to slow extinction rates | use partial reinforcement schedules |
| high extinction rates produced by (continuous/partial) reinforcement schedules | continuous |
| fixed ratio schedule | -given after certain amount of responses -high number of responding b/c reinforcement is predictable |
| variable ratio schedule | -don't know when reinforcement is given -high rate of responding -e.g. slot machines |
| fixed interval schedule | -given after certain amount of time -scallop function (most activity happens right before hump) -e.g. people on salaries, landlords |
| variable interval schedule | -reinforcement given after random time -steady responding at shallow rate |
| latent/implicit learning | -learning can occur even when performed action not reinforced -can occur in organisms without brain areas needed for explicit learning -differs very little among people & declines slowly -e.g. Tolman's rat maze experiment, amnesics & hunger |
| mirror neurons | -stimulated by latent learning -area 44 & 40 of parietal & frontal lobe near motor cortex -mental stimulation when doing/watching something |
| Rescorla-Wagner model | -conditioning easier when CS was an unfamiliar event (effects of expectations) -evidence for cognitive activity |
| which area needed for emotional conditioning? | central area of amygdala |
| overjustification effect | external rewards undermine intrinsic satisfaction of performing behavior |
| stimulus control | -behavior develops only when discriminative stimulus is present -produces generalization & discrimination |
| Skinner's "three-term contingency" | 1) discriminative stimulus 2) response 3) reinforcer |
| intermittent-reinforcement effect | behavior under intermittent reinforcement more resistant than continuous |
| means-ends relationship (Tolman) | -knowledge that in a particular situation, a specific reward will appear after specific response -establishes internal cognitive state |
| cognitive map | mental representation of physical features of environment |
| pleasure centers | -areas of limbic system producing intensely positive experiences -stimulated at expense of other basic needs -activated by opiates, amphetamines, cocaine |
| medial forebrain bundle | -pathway connecting hypothalamus to nucleus accumbens -neurons are dopaminergic |
| observational learning | -learning takes place by watching actions of others -role imitation & awareness of behavior important -challenges behaviorist ideas -e.g. Bobo doll (aggression in children) -almost as effective as practicing it |
| diffusion chain | initially learn behavior by observing & then serving as model for future |
| enculturation hypothesis | being raised in human culture has profound effect on cognitive ability of chimps (particularly understanding intention of others) |
| artificial grammar experiment | -can't articulate grammar violations, but recognize them -Broca's area involved |
| serial reaction time test | -participants unaware of pattern -motor cortex involved |
| areas of brain involved in explicit learning | -prefrontal cortex -parietal cortex -hippocampus |
| areas of brain involved in implicit learning | -decreased activity in occipital region |
Created by:
Tiffanyy
Popular Psychology sets