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When the defective phage enters a new bacterial cell
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In the process of specialized transduction
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Microbiology

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When the defective phage enters a new bacterial cell both phage DNA and bacterial DNA integrate into the chromosome of the new cell host
In the process of specialized transduction only a few specific genes from the bacteriophage are transferred to the second bacterial host by a phage
In specialized transduction only bacterial genes near the site of integration of the phage DNA can be transduced
The lambda phage DNA always integrates into the host DNA in the same specific site. True
Sometimes a piece of bacterial DNA near the specific site of insertion stays attached to the phage DNA, and a piece of phage DNA remains behind. False
A/an _______ is specifically able to have a long-term relationship with the host known as lysogeny Temperate virus
Ribotyping ID microbes from analysis of DNA fragments generated from restriction enzyme digestion of genes encoding ssRNA. FAST and RELIABLE
FISH Flurorescent In Situ Hybridization, do NOT need to culture colonies
The significance of the plasma membrane is that it selectively allows some molecules to pass into the organism it prevents movement of molecules out of the organism it is the site of protein synthesis
The most commonly encountered bacteria are roughly spherical. The microbiological term describing this shape is coccus
In bacterial cells, ribosomes are packed into the cytoplasmic matrix and also loosely attached to the plasma membrane. What is the function of ribosomes? Site of protein synthesis
Plasmids are important to the genetics of many bacteria. This is because they can render bacteria drug-resistant they may carry genes that give their host a selective advantage they are inherited from one generation to the next
Bacteria do not always swim aimlessly but are attracted by such nutrients such as sugar and amino acids, and are repelled by harmful substances and bacterial waste products. Movement toward chemical attractants and away from repellents is called chemotaxis.
Gas vesicles in bacteria help move cells to optimal nutrient levels.
Gram positive cells ave multiple layers of peptidoglycan that help retain the crystal violet stain.
The presence of D-amino acids in the crosslinks of the peptidoglycan layer is most likely because most peptidases can only cleave L-amino acids.
The third amino acid in the peptidoglycan crosslinking chain is either diaminopimilic acid or lysine because this amino acid must have a free amino group for peptide bond formation.
Gram positive cells do not have an outer membrane. have large amounts of teichoic acids have thick, homogeneous cell walls.
Urgent threat Clostridium difficile Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) Drug-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae
The outer membrane of Gram negative cells is more permeable than the plasma membrane because porin proteins establish holes in the outer membrane.
The most important role of the prokaryotic cell wall is to protect the cell from osmotic pressures.
What is the purpose of bacterial endospores? Allow the bacterium to survive extended periods of heat or dryness.
Serious threats Drug-resistant Salmonella Typhi ■ ■ Drug-resistant Shigella Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae
Concerning threats Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) Erythromycin-resistant Group A Streptococcus
WHERE DO INFECTIONS HAPPEN? Antibiotic-resistant infections can happen anywhere. Data show that most happen in the general community; however, most deaths related to antibiotic resistance happen in healthcare settings, such as hospitals and nursing homes
Estimated minimum number of illnesses and death due to Clostridium difficile 250,000 ilnesses 14,000 deaths
Estimated minimum number of illnesses and deaths caused by antibiotic resistance 2,049,442 illnesses 23,000 deaths
Animal to human antibiotic resistance Drug-resistant bacteria can remain on meat from animals. When not handled or cooked properly, the bacteria can spread to humans.
Human to human antibiotic resistance Resistant bacteria spread to other patients from surfaces within the healthcare facility.
General antibiotic resistance Simply using antibiotics creates resistance. These drugs should only be used to treat infections
What does L-Lysine do in G+ L-Lysine cross links to D-alanine in G+
Prokaryotic cell membranes can be a bilayer or monolayer True; Archaea have monolayer, bacteria have bilayer
which part of the bilayer is hydrophobic fatty acid chains
what makes up the hydrophilic portion of the bilayer glycerol and phosphate
CURRENTLY, THERE IS NO SYSTEMATIC INTERNATIONAL SURVEILLANCE OF ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE THREATS Today, the international identification of antibiotic resistance threats occurs through domestic importation of novel antibiotic resistance threats or through identification of overseas outbreaks
ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES CAN IDENTIFY THREATS MUCH FASTER THAN CURRENT PRACTICE Advanced molecular detection (AMD) technologies, which can identify AR threats much faster than current practice, are not being used as widely as necessary in the United States
PREVENTING INFECTIONS, PREVENTING THE SPREAD OF RESISTANCE...Avoiding infections in the first place reduces the amount of antibiotics that have to be used and reduces the likelihood that resistance will develop during therapy. There are many ways that drug-resistant infections can be prevented: immunization, safe food preparation, handwashing, and using antibiotics as directed and only when necessary. preventing infections also prevents the spread of resistant bacteria
TRACKING CDC gathers data on antibiotic-resistant infections, causes of infections and whether there are particular reasons (risk factors) that caused some people to get a resistant infection.
IMPROVING ANTIBIOTIC PRESCRIBING/STEWARDSHIP s the single most important action needed to greatly slow down the development and spread of antibiotic-resistant infections is to change the way antibiotics are use
DEVELOPING NEW DRUGS AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS Because antibiotic resistance occurs as part of a natural process in which bacteria evolve, it can be slowed but not stopped.
How wide is the cell wall 6-8 nanometers wide
What is the function of Mg2+ and Ca2+ Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions stabilize membranes by forming ionic bonds with negative charges on phospholipids
what is unique about Archaeal membranes? -Monolipid layer (byphytanyl= monolayer of isoprene units) -ETHER linkages, not Keeps cell membrane intact under extreme conditions
What does the cell membrane do? Permeability barrier Protein anchor ATP production
What are peptidoglycans two sugar derivatives? NAM (N-Acetylmuramic acid) NAG (N-Acetylglucosamine)
What amino acids hang off of the side of NAM/NAG? L-alanine D-glutamic acid If G-, DAP If G+, Lysine D-alanine
What is the configuration of beta 1-4 linkage for NAG/NAM? G N G L-Ala D-Glu DAP--------D-Ala D-Ala DAP D-glu L-Ala
What is D-glu? D-glu stands for D-glutamic acid
What are the parts of core polysaccharide? KDO 7 carbon sugar Glucose, galactose, NAG
What is the order of the outer membrane? O-specific lipopolysaccharide Core polysaccharide Lipid A
MLST Housekeeping genes. Has sufficient resolving power to distinguish between very closely related strains.
Primitive cells are protocells…came from subsurface ocean near thermal vents. Clay played role in being a solid substrate for rxns to occur
SSrna strands are good candidates for phylogenetic analysis because ssrNA strands are universally distributed, are functionally constant, and change very slowly (are conserved).
Most widely used molecular clocks are Most widely used molecular clocks are ss rRNA…found in ALL domains of life, 16s rRNA in prokaryotes, 18s rRNA in eukaryotes…functionally constant, sufficiently conserved, sufficient length.
Bacteria have at least ______ lineages Bacteria have at least 80 unique lineages…largest group is the proteobacteria, which shows all types of microbial physiology.
Archaea consist mostly of Archaea consist mostly of Crenarchaerota and euryarchaeota. Crenarchaeota= pyrolobus; hyperthermophile, euryarchaeota= extreme halophiles, acidophiles, and methanophiles.
Endosymbiosis theory Endosymbiosis theory: Lynn Margulis
Mitochondria/ Chloroplasts support endosymbiosis theory how? support theory as they are both the same size as bacteria, have small circular DNA, and their function is inhibited by the same antibiotics that inhibit bacterial ribosomes. Cell membrane is very similar to cell membrane of bacteria.
Gene loss is common among Gene loss is common among obligate symbionts and parasites
_____ or greater % similarity in ss rRNA = same species. 97% or greater similarity in ss rRNA = same species.
FAME= Fatty Acid Methyl Ester Bacterial identification technique that looks at the fatty acids making up the cell wall. Relies on variation in type and proportion of fatty acids in membrane lipids. Drawbacks: Requires rigid standardization
DNA-DNA hybridization Examines the DNA of two closely related species and looks at where the DNA matches up. Greater than 70% means same species, greater than 25% means same genus.
prokaryotic species is currently defined as a group of strains sharing a high degree of similarity in several independent traits. A group of strains that cluster closely with each other and are distinct from other groups of strains based on multiple gene cladistics analysis.
many groups are phenotypically diverse... PHYSIOLOGY AND PHYLOGENY ARE NOT NECESSARILY LINKED
Mitochondria arose from __________ Mitochondria arose from proteoactera
chloroplasts arose from _____________ chloroplasts arose from cyanobacteria.
What protein is key to homologous recombination REC A protein= KEY TO HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION (identified in ALL domains of life)
Lytic cycle Lytic cycle= when viruses get into cell and force cell to make more viruses, eventually lysing the bacterial cell. Virus sis a transducing agent since it contains some of the host DNA. Cell gets transduced.
Lysogenic Viral DNA pastes into host DNA making the virus a prophage, the cell is infected but does not produce more viruses. Viral DNA has to get cut out to be activated.
Why share plasmids power in numbers. Genes on a plasmid can alter cell phenotype, leads to selective advantage in habitat. Plasmid transfer= highly efficient, can transmit between distantly related species
Specialized transduction DNA from a specific region of the host chromosomes is integrated directly into the virus genome, usually replacing viral genes. ONLY HAPPENS IN TEMPERATE PHAGES. Homologous recombination may occur.
Transducing particle: During lytic cycle enzymes responsible for packaging viral DNA into bacteriophage package host DNA instead
Rolling circle replication DNA transfer is triggered by cell to cell contact. One strand of the plasmid is nicked (remember, double stranded) and transferred to the recipient. The complementary strand is made as the DNA enters the recipient.
Gene: Phosphoketolase Lineage: Bacteria to fungi Significance: Adaption to insect environment
Gene: Multiple genes Lineage: Bacteria to blastocystis Significance: Adaption to gut environment
Gene: Glycosyl hydrolases Lineage: Bacteria to fungi Significance: Adaption to rumen environments
General size of bacteria: 0.5 to 2 micrometers is the general size of bacteria
Biggest bacteria? Biggest is 600 micrometers long, thiomargarita
why are small cells better than large cells Higher S/V ratio: Small cells support a faster rate of nutrient exchange per unit of volume, meaning small cells grow faster, in a given amount of resources small cells will be able to hold a larger population size.
Why do mutations appear so rapidly Being genetically haploid results in the immediate influence of mutations,small cells have the capacity to rapidly reproduce and can quickly begin a population which carries mutations.
Hopanoids= Hopanoids= structural analogs of steroids, strengthens cell wall.
What is unique about archaeal lipids Archaeal lipids lack true fatty acid side chains; repeating units of isoprene instead, CONTAIN ETHER BONDS BETWEEN THEIR FATTY ACIDS
Bacteria and eukarya are held together by __________ ___________ Bacteria and eukarya are held together by ester linkages.
What is the inner part of the outer membrane made of Phospholipids and lipoproteins, which anchors the outer membrane to peptidoglycan
Porin proteins: Channel proteins hydrphilic, low molecular weight molecules flow through
FeS + H2S --> FeS2 + H2 = -42kJ. Formation of pyrite (FeS2) leads to H2 production and S0 reduction, which fuels a primitive ATPase. Note how H2S plays only a catalytic role
What is the NAG/NAM repeating unit called? glycan tetrapeptide
Do gram negative bacteria have interbridges in their peptidoglycan sheet? No, only gram positive bacteria have interbridges.
What is the periplasm? Space between inner surface of OM and outer surface of CM. It is gel like, and contains Hydrolytic enzymes, Binding proteins, and Chemoreceptors
How wide is the periplasm? 12-15 nanometers
Describe the archaeal cell wall Made of Pseudopeptidoglycan, which has the two sugar derivatives NAG + NAT, Linkage of b-1,3 (not b-1,4)
What is the Paracrystalline surface layer (S-layer) The Paracrystalline surface layer (S-layer)is present in archaea and bacteria.
why is it important to know what kind of infection you have before you take antibiotics if you have a gram negative infection, then the antibiotics will lyse the cell causing lipid A to come into contact with your body and create an infection.
When pyrite is formed, H2 production and So reduction occurs. What is the importance of H2? H2 are actually protons, their electrons have been stripped away to be used as fuel, resulting in an accumulation of H+ protons outside of the cell(concentration gradient). As protons flow through ATP synthase torque is created. result is ADP +Pi-->ATP
What is pseudopeptidoglycan pseudopeptidoglycan occurs in archaea and is false peptidoglycan. its sugar derivatives are NAG and NAT, and it has b-1-3 linkages NOT b-1-4 linkages.
What types of cell wall can archaea have pseudopeptidoglycan, just sugar, sugar/proteins, just proteins, or paracrystalline surface layer
what type of cell wall is most common in archaea paracrystalline surface layer (>50%)
what does B-1-3 lysozyme insensitive mean lysozyme does not affect the b-1-3 linkages of the achaeal cell wall.
what does B-1-4 lysozyme sensitive mean lysozyme effectively attacks and breaks down the peptidoglycan of bacterial cells.
how many genes are needed to build a flagella 50 genes need to be expressed to make a flagella.
What proteins are needed for flagella to work Fli proteins-function as motor switch, flagellin proteins, mot proteins cause torque
Describe the motor portion of a flagellium Motor portion= anchored in cell wall..ring system: L-ring, p-ring, ms-ring, c-ring.
How many protons does it take for one rotation it takes 1000 protons for one rotation
Describe the mot protein mot protein causes torque; need proton gradient to do so. proton flow causes torque.
What connects the motor to the filament the hook connects the motor to the filament
Peritrichous many flagella inserted all the way around
Polar single flagella at one end
Lophotrichous numerous flagella at one end
What is required for gliding motility? Excretion of polysaccharide slime, Type IV pili, Gliding-specific proteins and contact with the surface. Gliding motility usually present in rod shaped bacteria.
Chemotaxis response to chemicals
Phototaxis Phototaxis: response to light
Aerotaxis Aerotaxis: response to oxygen
Osmotaxis Osmotaxis: response to ionic strength
Hydrotaxis Hydrotaxis: response to water
Glycocalyx extracellular polymeric material produced by some bacteria, Capsule & Slime Layers Polysaccharide or protein
What is gliding motility? Flagella-independent motility
What does gliding motility require? Gliding motility requires gliding-specific proteins, type four pili, and polysaccharide slime
What are the functions of the glycocalyx? The glycocalyx produces biofilms, assists in adherence, assists in nutrient collection, helps resist dessication, and helps evade phagocytosis.
Created by: shammar
 

 



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