Microbiology
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| When the defective phage enters a new bacterial cell | both phage DNA and bacterial DNA integrate into the chromosome of the new cell host
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| In the process of specialized transduction | only a few specific genes from the bacteriophage are transferred to the second bacterial host by a phage
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| In specialized transduction | only bacterial genes near the site of integration of the phage DNA can be transduced
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| The lambda phage DNA always integrates into the host DNA in the same specific site. | True
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| Sometimes a piece of bacterial DNA near the specific site of insertion stays attached to the phage DNA, and a piece of phage DNA remains behind. | False
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| A/an _______ is specifically able to have a long-term relationship with the host known as lysogeny | Temperate virus
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| Ribotyping | ID microbes from analysis of DNA fragments generated from restriction enzyme digestion of genes encoding ssRNA. FAST and RELIABLE
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| FISH | Flurorescent In Situ Hybridization, do NOT need to culture colonies
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| The significance of the plasma membrane is that | it selectively allows some molecules to pass into the organism
it prevents movement of molecules out of the organism
it is the site of protein synthesis
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| The most commonly encountered bacteria are roughly spherical. The microbiological term describing this shape is | coccus
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| In bacterial cells, ribosomes are packed into the cytoplasmic matrix and also loosely attached to the plasma membrane. What is the function of ribosomes? | Site of protein synthesis
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| Plasmids are important to the genetics of many bacteria. This is because | they can render bacteria drug-resistant
they may carry genes that give their host a selective advantage
they are inherited from one generation to the next
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| Bacteria do not always swim aimlessly but are attracted by such nutrients such as sugar and amino acids, and are repelled by harmful substances and bacterial waste products. Movement toward chemical attractants and away from repellents is called | chemotaxis.
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| Gas vesicles in bacteria | help move cells to optimal nutrient levels.
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| Gram positive cells | ave multiple layers of peptidoglycan that help retain the crystal violet stain.
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| The presence of D-amino acids in the crosslinks of the peptidoglycan layer is most likely because | most peptidases can only cleave L-amino acids.
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| The third amino acid in the peptidoglycan crosslinking chain is either diaminopimilic acid or lysine because this amino acid must | have a free amino group for peptide bond formation.
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| Gram positive cells | do not have an outer membrane.
have large amounts of teichoic acids
have thick, homogeneous cell walls.
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| Urgent threat | Clostridium difficile
Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE)
Drug-resistant
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
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| The outer membrane of Gram negative cells is more permeable than the plasma membrane because | porin proteins establish holes in the outer membrane.
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| The most important role of the prokaryotic cell wall is to | protect the cell from osmotic pressures.
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| What is the purpose of bacterial endospores? | Allow the bacterium to survive extended periods of heat or dryness.
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| Serious threats | Drug-resistant
Salmonella
Typhi
■
■
Drug-resistant
Shigella
Methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus
(MRSA)
Drug-resistant
Streptococcus pneumoniae
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| Concerning threats | Vancomycin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus
(VRSA)
Erythromycin-resistant Group A
Streptococcus
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| WHERE DO INFECTIONS HAPPEN? | Antibiotic-resistant infections can happen anywhere. Data show that
most happen in the general community; however, most deaths related
to antibiotic resistance happen in healthcare settings, such as hospitals
and nursing homes
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| Estimated minimum number of illnesses and death due to Clostridium difficile | 250,000 ilnesses
14,000 deaths
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| Estimated minimum number of illnesses and deaths caused by antibiotic resistance | 2,049,442 illnesses
23,000 deaths
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| Animal to human antibiotic resistance | Drug-resistant
bacteria can
remain on meat
from animals.
When not handled
or cooked properly,
the bacteria can
spread to humans.
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| Human to human antibiotic resistance | Resistant bacteria
spread to other
patients from
surfaces within the
healthcare facility.
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| General antibiotic resistance | Simply using antibiotics creates resistance. These drugs should only be used to treat infections
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| What does L-Lysine do in G+ | L-Lysine cross links to D-alanine in G+
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| Prokaryotic cell membranes can be a bilayer or monolayer | True; Archaea have monolayer, bacteria have bilayer
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| which part of the bilayer is hydrophobic | fatty acid chains
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| what makes up the hydrophilic portion of the bilayer | glycerol and phosphate
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| CURRENTLY, THERE IS NO SYSTEMATIC INTERNATIONAL SURVEILLANCE OF ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE THREATS | Today, the international identification of antibiotic
resistance threats occurs through domestic importation of
novel antibiotic resistance threats or through identification
of overseas outbreaks
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| ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES CAN IDENTIFY THREATS MUCH FASTER THAN CURRENT PRACTICE | Advanced molecular detection (AMD) technologies, which can
identify AR threats much faster than current practice, are not
being used as widely as necessary in the United States
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| PREVENTING INFECTIONS, PREVENTING THE SPREAD OF RESISTANCE...Avoiding infections in the first place reduces the amount of antibiotics that have to be used and reduces the likelihood that resistance will develop during therapy. | There are many ways that
drug-resistant infections can be prevented: immunization, safe
food preparation, handwashing, and using antibiotics as directed
and only when necessary. preventing infections also
prevents the spread of resistant bacteria
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| TRACKING | CDC gathers data on antibiotic-resistant infections, causes of
infections and whether there are particular reasons (risk factors)
that caused some people to get a resistant infection.
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| IMPROVING ANTIBIOTIC PRESCRIBING/STEWARDSHIP | s the single most important action needed to greatly slow
down the development and spread of antibiotic-resistant infections
is to change the way antibiotics are use
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| DEVELOPING NEW DRUGS AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS | Because antibiotic resistance occurs as part of a natural process in
which bacteria evolve, it can be slowed but not stopped.
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| How wide is the cell wall | 6-8 nanometers wide
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| What is the function of Mg2+ and Ca2+ | Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions stabilize membranes by forming ionic bonds with negative charges on phospholipids
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| what is unique about Archaeal membranes? | -Monolipid layer (byphytanyl= monolayer of isoprene units)
-ETHER linkages, not
Keeps cell membrane intact under extreme conditions
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| What does the cell membrane do? | Permeability barrier
Protein anchor
ATP production
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| What are peptidoglycans two sugar derivatives? | NAM (N-Acetylmuramic acid)
NAG (N-Acetylglucosamine)
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| What amino acids hang off of the side of NAM/NAG? | L-alanine
D-glutamic acid
If G-, DAP
If G+, Lysine
D-alanine
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| What is the configuration of beta 1-4 linkage for NAG/NAM? | G N G
L-Ala
D-Glu
DAP--------D-Ala
D-Ala DAP
D-glu
L-Ala
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| What is D-glu? | D-glu stands for D-glutamic acid
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| What are the parts of core polysaccharide? | KDO
7 carbon sugar
Glucose, galactose, NAG
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| What is the order of the outer membrane? | O-specific lipopolysaccharide
Core polysaccharide
Lipid A
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| MLST | Housekeeping genes. Has sufficient resolving power to distinguish between very closely related strains.
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| Primitive cells are | protocells…came from subsurface ocean near thermal vents. Clay played role in being a solid substrate for rxns to occur
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| SSrna strands are good candidates for phylogenetic analysis because | ssrNA strands are universally distributed, are functionally constant, and change very slowly (are conserved).
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| Most widely used molecular clocks are | Most widely used molecular clocks are ss rRNA…found in ALL domains of life, 16s rRNA in prokaryotes, 18s rRNA in eukaryotes…functionally constant, sufficiently conserved, sufficient length.
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| Bacteria have at least ______ lineages | Bacteria have at least 80 unique lineages…largest group is the proteobacteria, which shows all types of microbial physiology.
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| Archaea consist mostly of | Archaea consist mostly of Crenarchaerota and euryarchaeota. Crenarchaeota= pyrolobus; hyperthermophile, euryarchaeota= extreme halophiles, acidophiles, and methanophiles.
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| Endosymbiosis theory | Endosymbiosis theory: Lynn Margulis
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| Mitochondria/ Chloroplasts support endosymbiosis theory how? | support theory as they are both the same size as bacteria, have small circular DNA, and their function is inhibited by the same antibiotics that inhibit bacterial ribosomes. Cell membrane is very similar to cell membrane of bacteria.
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| Gene loss is common among | Gene loss is common among obligate symbionts and parasites
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| _____ or greater % similarity in ss rRNA = same species. | 97% or greater similarity in ss rRNA = same species.
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| FAME= Fatty Acid Methyl Ester | Bacterial identification technique that looks at the fatty acids making up the cell wall. Relies on variation in type and proportion of fatty acids in membrane lipids. Drawbacks: Requires rigid standardization
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| DNA-DNA hybridization | Examines the DNA of two closely related species and looks at where the DNA matches up. Greater than 70% means same species, greater than 25% means same genus.
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| prokaryotic species is currently defined as | a group of strains sharing a high degree of similarity in several independent traits. A group of strains that cluster closely with each other and are distinct from other groups of strains based on multiple gene cladistics analysis.
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| many groups are phenotypically diverse... | PHYSIOLOGY AND PHYLOGENY ARE NOT NECESSARILY LINKED
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| Mitochondria arose from __________ | Mitochondria arose from proteoactera
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| chloroplasts arose from _____________ | chloroplasts arose from cyanobacteria.
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| What protein is key to homologous recombination | REC A protein= KEY TO HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION (identified in ALL domains of life)
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| Lytic cycle | Lytic cycle= when viruses get into cell and force cell to make more viruses, eventually lysing the bacterial cell. Virus sis a transducing agent since it contains some of the host DNA. Cell gets transduced.
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| Lysogenic | Viral DNA pastes into host DNA making the virus a prophage, the cell is infected but does not produce more viruses. Viral DNA has to get cut out to be activated.
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| Why share plasmids | power in numbers. Genes on a plasmid can alter cell phenotype, leads to selective advantage in habitat. Plasmid transfer= highly efficient, can transmit between distantly related species
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| Specialized transduction | DNA from a specific region of the host chromosomes is integrated directly into the virus genome, usually replacing viral genes. ONLY HAPPENS IN TEMPERATE PHAGES. Homologous recombination may occur.
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| Transducing particle: | During lytic cycle enzymes responsible for packaging viral DNA into bacteriophage package host DNA instead
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| Rolling circle replication | DNA transfer is triggered by cell to cell contact. One strand of the plasmid is nicked (remember, double stranded) and transferred to the recipient. The complementary strand is made as the DNA enters the recipient.
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| Gene: Phosphoketolase | Lineage: Bacteria to fungi
Significance: Adaption to insect environment
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| Gene: Multiple genes | Lineage: Bacteria to blastocystis
Significance: Adaption to gut environment
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| Gene: Glycosyl hydrolases | Lineage: Bacteria to fungi
Significance: Adaption to rumen environments
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| General size of bacteria: | 0.5 to 2 micrometers is the general size of bacteria
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| Biggest bacteria? | Biggest is 600 micrometers long, thiomargarita
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| why are small cells better than large cells | Higher S/V ratio: Small cells support a faster rate of nutrient exchange per unit of volume, meaning small cells grow faster, in a given amount of resources small cells will be able to hold a larger population size.
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| Why do mutations appear so rapidly | Being genetically haploid results in the immediate influence of mutations,small cells have the capacity to rapidly reproduce and can quickly begin a population which carries mutations.
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| Hopanoids= | Hopanoids= structural analogs of steroids, strengthens cell wall.
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| What is unique about archaeal lipids | Archaeal lipids lack true fatty acid side chains; repeating units of isoprene instead, CONTAIN ETHER BONDS BETWEEN THEIR FATTY ACIDS
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| Bacteria and eukarya are held together by __________ ___________ | Bacteria and eukarya are held together by ester linkages.
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| What is the inner part of the outer membrane made of | Phospholipids and lipoproteins, which anchors the outer membrane to peptidoglycan
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| Porin proteins: | Channel proteins
hydrphilic, low molecular weight molecules flow through
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| FeS + H2S --> FeS2 + H2 = -42kJ. | Formation of pyrite (FeS2) leads to H2 production and S0 reduction, which fuels a primitive ATPase. Note how H2S plays only a catalytic role
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| What is the NAG/NAM repeating unit called? | glycan tetrapeptide
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| Do gram negative bacteria have interbridges in their peptidoglycan sheet? | No, only gram positive bacteria have interbridges.
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| What is the periplasm? | Space between inner surface of OM and outer surface of CM. It is gel like, and contains Hydrolytic enzymes, Binding proteins, and Chemoreceptors
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| How wide is the periplasm? | 12-15 nanometers
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| Describe the archaeal cell wall | Made of Pseudopeptidoglycan, which has the two sugar derivatives NAG + NAT, Linkage of b-1,3 (not b-1,4)
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| What is the Paracrystalline surface layer (S-layer) | The Paracrystalline surface layer (S-layer)is present in archaea and bacteria.
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| why is it important to know what kind of infection you have before you take antibiotics | if you have a gram negative infection, then the antibiotics will lyse the cell causing lipid A to come into contact with your body and create an infection.
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| When pyrite is formed, H2 production and So reduction occurs. What is the importance of H2? | H2 are actually protons, their electrons have been stripped away to be used as fuel, resulting in an accumulation of H+ protons outside of the cell(concentration gradient). As protons flow through ATP synthase torque is created. result is ADP +Pi-->ATP
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| What is pseudopeptidoglycan | pseudopeptidoglycan occurs in archaea and is false peptidoglycan. its sugar derivatives are NAG and NAT, and it has b-1-3 linkages NOT b-1-4 linkages.
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| What types of cell wall can archaea have | pseudopeptidoglycan, just sugar, sugar/proteins, just proteins, or paracrystalline surface layer
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| what type of cell wall is most common in archaea | paracrystalline surface layer (>50%)
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| what does B-1-3 lysozyme insensitive mean | lysozyme does not affect the b-1-3 linkages of the achaeal cell wall.
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| what does B-1-4 lysozyme sensitive mean | lysozyme effectively attacks and breaks down the peptidoglycan of bacterial cells.
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| how many genes are needed to build a flagella | 50 genes need to be expressed to make a flagella.
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| What proteins are needed for flagella to work | Fli proteins-function as motor switch, flagellin proteins, mot proteins cause torque
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| Describe the motor portion of a flagellium | Motor portion= anchored in cell wall..ring system: L-ring, p-ring, ms-ring, c-ring.
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| How many protons does it take for one rotation | it takes 1000 protons for one rotation
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| Describe the mot protein | mot protein causes torque; need proton gradient to do so. proton flow causes torque.
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| What connects the motor to the filament | the hook connects the motor to the filament
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| Peritrichous | many flagella inserted all the way around
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| Polar | single flagella at one end
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| Lophotrichous | numerous flagella at one end
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| What is required for gliding motility? | Excretion of polysaccharide slime, Type IV pili, Gliding-specific proteins and contact with the surface. Gliding motility usually present in rod shaped bacteria.
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| Chemotaxis | response to chemicals
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| Phototaxis | Phototaxis: response to light
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| Aerotaxis | Aerotaxis: response to oxygen
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| Osmotaxis | Osmotaxis: response to ionic strength
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| Hydrotaxis | Hydrotaxis: response to water
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| Glycocalyx | extracellular polymeric material produced by some bacteria, Capsule & Slime Layers
Polysaccharide or protein
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| What is gliding motility? | Flagella-independent motility
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| What does gliding motility require? | Gliding motility requires gliding-specific proteins, type four pili, and polysaccharide slime
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| What are the functions of the glycocalyx? | The glycocalyx produces biofilms, assists in adherence, assists in nutrient collection, helps resist dessication, and helps evade phagocytosis.
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