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Brain & Behavior

Chapters 2,3,4

QuestionAnswer
sensory neuron a neuron that detects changes in the external or internal environment and sends information about these changes to the CNS.
motor neuron a neuron located within the CNS that controls the contraction of a muscle or the secretion of a gland.
interneuron a neuron located entirely within the CNS.
central nervous system (CNS) the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system (PNS) the part of the nervous system outside the brain and the spinal cord, including the nerves attached to the brain and spinal cord.
soma the cell body of a neuron, which contains the nucleus.
dendrite a branched, treelike structure attached to the soma of a neuron; receives information from the terminal buttons of other neurons.
synapse a junction between the terminal button of an axon and the membrane of another neuron.
axon the long, thin, cylindrical structure that conveys information from the soma of a neuron to its terminal buttons.
multipolar neuron a neuron with one axon and many dendrites attached to its soma.
bipolar neuron a neuron with one axon and one dendrite attached to its soma.
unipolar neuron a neuron with one axon attached to its soma; the axon divides, one branch receiving sensory information and the other sending the information into the CNS.
terminal button the bud at the end of a branch of an axon; forms synapses with another neuron; sends information to that neuron.
neurotransmitter a chemical that is released by a terminal button; has an excitatory or inhibitory effect on another neuron.
membrane a structure consisting principally of lipid molecules that defines the outer boundaries of a cell and also constitutes many of the cell organelles.
cytoplasm the viscous, semiliquid substance contained in the interior of a cell.
mitochondria an organelle that is responsible for extracting energy from nutrients.
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) a molecule of a prime importance to the cellular energy metabolism; its breakdown liberates energy.
nucleus a structure in the central region of a cell, containing the chromosomes.
chromosome a strand of DNA, with associated proteins, found in the nucleus; carries genetic information.
axoplasmic transport an active process by which substances are propelled along microtubules that run the length of the axon.
microtubule a long strand of bundles of protein filaments arranged around a hollow core; part of the cytoskeleton and involved in transporting substances from place to place within the cell.
glia the supporting cells of the CNS.
astrocyte a glial cell that provides support for neurons of the CNS, provides nutrients and other substances, and regulates the chemical composition of the extracellular fluid.
phagocytosis the process by which cells engulf and digest other cells or debris caused by cellular degeneration.
oligodendrocyte a type of glial cell in the CNS that forms myelin sheaths.
myelin sheath a sheath that surrounds axons and insulates them, preventing messages from spreading between adjacent axons.
node of Ranvier a naked portion of a myelinated axon, between adjacent oligodendroglia or Schwann cells.
microglia the smallest of the glial cells; act as phagocytes and protect the brain from invading microorganisms.
Schwann cell a cell in the PNS that is wrapped around a myelinated axon, providing one segment of its myelin sheath.
blood-brain barrier a semipermeable barrier between the blood and the brain produced by the cells in the walls of the brain's capillaries.
area postrema a region of the medulla where the blood-brain barrier is weak; posions can be detected there and can initiate vomiting.
electrode a conductive medium that can be used to apply electrical stimulation or to record electrical potentials.
microelectrode a very fine electrode, generally used to record activity of individual neurons.
membrane potential the electrical charge across a cell membrane; the difference in electrical potential inside and outside the cell.
oscilloscope a laboratory instrument that is capable of displaying a graph of voltage as a function of time on the face of a cathode ray tube.
resting potential the membrane potential of a neuron when it is not being altered by excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potentials; approximately -70 mV in the giant squid axon.
depolarization reduction (toward zero)of the membrane potential of a cell from its normal resting potential.
hyperpolarization an increase in the membrane potential of a cell, relative to the normal resting potential.
action potential the brief electrical impulse that provides the basis for conduction of information along an axon.
threshold of excitation the value of the membrane potential that must be reached to produce an action potential.
diffusion movement of molecules from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration.
electrolyte an aqueous solution of a material that ionizes -- namely, a soluble acid, base, or salt.
ion a charged molecule. Cations are positively charged, and anions are negatively charged.
electrostatic pressure the attractive force between atomic particles charged with opposite signs or the repulsive force between atomic particles charged with the same sign.
intracellular fluid the fluid contained within cells.
extracellular fluid body fluids located outside of cells.
sodium-potassium transporter a protein found in the membrane of all cells that extrudes sodium ions from and transports potassium ions into the cell.
ion channel a specialized protein molecule that permits specific ions to enter or leave cells.
voltage-dependent ion channel an ion channel that opens or closes according to the value of the membrane potential.
all-or-none law the principle that once an action potential is triggered in an axon, it is propogated, without decrement, to the end of the fiber.
rate law the principle that variations in the intensity of a stimulus or other information being transmitted in an axon are represented by variations in the rate at which that axon fires.
saltatory conduction conduction of action potentials by myelinated axons. The action potential appears to jump from one node of Ranvier to the next.
postsynaptic potential alterations in the membrane potential of a postynaptic neuron, produced by liberation of neurotransmitter at the synapse.
binding site the location on a receptor protein to which a ligand binds.
ligand a chemical that binds with the binding site of a receptor.
dendritic spine a small bud on the surface of a dendrite, with which a terminal button of another neuron forms a synapse.
presynaptic membrane the cell membrane opposite the terminal button in a synapse; the membrane of the cell that receives the message.
synaptic cleft the space between the presynaptic membrane and the postsynaptic membrane.
synaptic vesicle a small, hollow, beadlike structure found in terminal buttons; contains molecules of a neurotransmitter.
postsynaptic receptor a receptor molecule in the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter.
neurotransmitter-dependent ion channel an ion channel that opens when a molecule of a neurotransmitter binds with a postsynaptic receptor.
ionotropic receptor a receptor that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter and an ion channel that opens when a molecule of the neurotransmitter attaches to the binding site.
metabotropic receptor a receptor that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter; activates an enzyme that begins a series of events that opens an ion channel elsewhere in the membrane of the cell when a molecule of the neurotransmitter attaches to the binding site.
G protein a protein coupled to a metabotropic receptor; conveys messages to other molecules when a ligand binds with and activates the receptor.
second messanger a chemical produced when a G protein activates an enzyme; carries a signal that results in the opening of the ion channel or causes other events to occur in the cell.
excitatory postsynaptic potential (ESPS) an excitatory depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse caused by the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the terminal button.
inhibitory postsynaptic potential an inhibitory hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse caused by the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the terminal button.
reuptake the reentry of a neurotransmitter just liberated by a terminal button back through its membrane, thus terminating the postsynaptic potential.
enymatic deactivation the destruction of a neurotransmitter by an enzyme after its release -- for example, the destruction of acetylcholine by acetylcholinesterase.
acetylcholine (ACh) a neurotransmitter found in the brain, spinal cord, and parts of the PNS; responsible for muscular contraction.
acetylcholinesterase (AChE) the enzyme that destroys acetylcholine soon after it is liberated by the terminal buttons, thus terminating the postsynaptic potential.
neural integration the process by which inhibitory and excitatory postsynaptic potentials summate and control the rate of firing of a neuron.
autoreceptor a receptor molecule located on a neuron that responds to the neurotransmitter released by that neuron.
presynaptic inhibition the action of a presynaptic terminal button in an axoaxonic synapse; reduces the amount of neurotransmitter released by the postsynaptic terminal button.
presynaptic facilitation the action of a presynaptic terminal button in an axoaxonic synapse; increases the amount of neurotransmitter released by the postsynaptic terminal button.
neuromodulator a naturally secreted substance that acts like a neruotransmitter except that it is not restricted to the synaptic cleft but diffuses through the extracellular fluid.
peptide a chain of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds. Most neuromodulators, and some hormones, consist of peptide molecules.
hormone a chemical substance that is released by an endocrine gland and that has effects on target cells in other organs.
endocrine gland a gland that liberates its secretions into the extracellular fluid around capillaries and hence into the bloodstream.
target cell the type of cell that contains receptors for a particular hormone and is affected by that hormone.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) a long, complex macromolecule consisting of two interconnected helical strands; along with associated proteins, strands of DNA constitute the chromosomes.
gene the functional unit of the chromosome, which directs synthesis of one or more proteins.
cytoskeleton formed of microtubules and other protein fibers, linked to each other and forming a cohesive mass that gives a cell its shape.
postsynaptic membrane the cell membrane opposite the terminal button in a synapse; the membrane of the cell that receives the message.
enzyme a molecule that controls a chemical reaction, combining two substances or breaking a substance into two parts.
neuraxis an imaginary line drawn through the center of the length of the CNS, from the bottom of the spinal cord to the front of the forebrain.
anterior with respect to the CNS, located near or toward the head.
posterior with respect to the CNS, located near or toward the tail.
rostral "Toward the beak"; with respect to the CNS, in a direction along the neuraxis toward the front of the face.
caudal "Toward the tail"; with respect to the CNS, in a direction along the neuraxis toward the top of the head or the back.
dorsal "Toward the back"; with respect to the CNS, in a direction perpendicular to the neuraxis toward the top of the head or hte back.
ventral "Toward the belly"; with respect to the CNS, in a direction perpendicular to the neuraxis toward the bottom of the skull or the front surface of the body.
lateral toward the side of the body, away from the middle.
medial toward the middle of the body, away from the side.
ipsilateral located on the same side of the body.
contralateral located on the opposite side of the body.
cross section with respect to the CNS, a slice taken at right angles to the neuraxis.
frontal section a slice through the brain parallel to the forehead.
horizontal section a slice through the brain parallel to the ground.
sagittal section a slice through the brain parallel to the neuraxis and perpendicular to the ground.
midsagittal plane the plane through the neuraxis perpendicular to the ground; divides the brain into two symmetrical halves.
meninges the 3 layers of tisse that encase the CNS: the dura mater, arachnoid membrane, and the pia mater.
dura mater the outermost of the meninges; tough and flexible.
arachnoid membrane the middle layer of the meninges, located between the outer dura mater and inner pia mater.
pia mater the layer of the meninges that clings to the surface of the brain; thin and delicate.
subarachnoid space the fluid-filled space that cushions the brain; located between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater.
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) a clear fluid, similar to blood plasma, that fills the ventricular system of the brain and the subarachnoid space surrounding the brain and the spinal cord.
ventricle one of the hollow spaces within the brain, filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
lateral ventricle one of the two ventricles located in the center of the telencephalon.
third ventricle the ventricle located in the center of the diencephalon.
cerebral aqueduct a narrow tube interconnecting the third and forth ventricles of the brain, located in the center of the mesencephalon.
fourth ventricle the ventricle located between the cerebellum and the dorsal pons, in the center of the metencephalon.
choroid plexus the highly vascular tissue that protrudes into the ventricles and produces cerebrospinal fluid.
neural tube a hollow tube, closed at the rostral end, that forms from ectodermal tissue early in embryonic development; serves as the origin of the CNS.
ventricular zone a layer of cells that line the inside of the neural tube; contains founder cells that divide and give rise to cells of the CNS.
cerebral cortex the outermost layer of gray matter of the cerebral hemisphere.
radial glia special glia with fibers that grow radically outward from the ventricular zone to the surface of the cortex; provide guidance for neurons migrating outward during brain development.
founder cells cells of the ventricular zone that divide and give rise to cells of the CNS.
symmetrical division division of a founder cell that gives rise to two identical founder cells; increases the size of the ventricular zone and hence the brain that develops from it.
asymmetrical division division of a founder cell that gives rise to another founder cell and a neuron, which migrates away from the ventricular zone toward its final resting place in the brain.
apoptosis death of a cell caused by a chemical signal that activates a genetic mechanism inside the cell.
forebrain the most rostral of the 3 major divisions of the brain; includes the telencephalon and diencephalon.
cerebral hemisphere 1 of the 2 major portions of the forebrain, covered by the cerebral cortex.
subcortical region the region located within the brain, beneath the cortical surface.
sulcus a groove in the surface of the cerebral hemisphere, smaller than a fissure.
fissure a major groove in the surface of the brain, larger than a sulcus.
gyrus a convolution of the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, separated by sulci or fissures.
primary visual cortex the region of the posterior occipital lobe whose primary input is from the visual system.
calcarine fissure a fissure located in the occipital lobe on the medial surface of the brain; most of the primary visual cortex is located along its upper and lower banks.
primary auditory cortex the region of the superior temporal lobe whose primary input is from the auditory system.
lateral fissure the fissure that separates the temporal lobe from the overlying frontal and parietal lobes.
primary somatosensory cortex the region of the anterior parietal lobe whose primary input is from the somatosensory system.
central sulcus the sulcus that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe.
primary motor cortex the region of the posterior frontal lobe that contains neurons that control movements of skeletal muscles.
frontal lobe the anterior portion of the cerebral cortex, rostral to the parietal lobe and dorsal to the temporal lobe.
parietal lobe the region of the cerebral cortex caudal to the frontal lobe and dorsal to the temporal lobe.
temporal lobe the region of the cerebral cortex rostral to the occipital lobe and ventral to the parietal and frontal lobes.
occipital lobe the region of the cerebral cortex caudal to the parietal and temporal lobes.
sensory association cortex those regions of the cerebral cortex that receive information from the regions of primary sensory cortex.
motor association cortex the region of the frontal lobe rostral to the primary motor cortex; also known as the premotor cortex.
prefrontal cortex the region of the frontal lobe rostral to the motor association cortex.
corpus callosum a large bundle of axons that interconnects corresponding regions of the association cortex on each side of the brain.
neocortex the phylogenetically newest cortex, including the primary sensory cortex, primary motor cortex, and association cortex.
limbic cortex phylogenetically old cortex, located at the medial edge ("limbus") of the cerebral hemispheres; part of the limbic system.
cingulate gyrus a strip of limbic cortex lying along the lateral walls of the groove separating the cerebral hemispheres, just above the corpus callosum.
limbic system a group of brain regions including the anterior thalamic nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus, limbic cortex, and parts of the hypothalamus, as well as their interconnecting fiber bundles.
hippocampus a forebrain structure of the temporal lobe, constituting an important part of the limbic system; includes the hippocampus proper (Ammon's horn) dentate gyrus, and subiculum.
amygdala a structure in the interior of the rostral temporal lobe, containing a set of nuclei; part of the limbic system.
fornix a fiber bundle that connects the hippocampus with other parts of the brain, including the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus; part of the limbic system.
mammillary bodies a protrusion of the bottom of the brain at the posterior end of the hypothalamus, containing some hypothalamic nuclei; part of the limbic system.
basal ganglia a group of subcortical nuclei in the telencephalon, the caudate nucleus, the globus pallidus, and the putamen; important parts of the motor system.
nucleus an identifiable group of neural cell bodies in the CNS.
diencephalon a region of the forebrain surrounding the third ventricle; includes the thalamus and the hypothalamus.
thalamus the largest portion of the diencephalon, located above the hypothalamus; contains nuclei that project information to specific regions of the cerebral cortex and receive information from it.
projection fiber an axon of a neuron in one region of the brain whose terminals form synapses with neurons in another region.
lateral geniculate nucleus a group of cell bodies within the lateral geniculate body of the thalamus that receives fibers from the retina and projects fibers to the primary visual cortex.
medial geniculate nucleus a group of cell bodies within the medial geniculate body of the thalamus; receives fibers from the auditory system and projects fibers to the primary auditory cortex.
ventrolateral nucleus a nucleus of the thalamus that receives inputs from the cerebellum and sends axons to the primary motor cortex.
hypothalamus the group of nuclei of the diencephalon situated beneath the thalamus; involved in regulation of the autonomic nervous system, control of the anterior and posterior pituitary glands, and integration of species-typical behaviors.
optic chiasm an X-shaped connection between the optic nerves, located below the base of the brain, just anterior to the pituitary gland.
anterior pituitary gland the anterior part of the pituitary gland; an endocrine gland whose secretions are controlled by the hypothalamic hormones.
neurosecretory cell a neuron that secretes a hormone of hormonelike sunstance.
posterior pituitary gland the posterior part of the pituitary gland; an endocrine gland that contains hormone-secreting terminal buttons of axons whose cell bodies lie within the hypothalamus.
midbrain the mesencephalon; the central of the 3 major divisions of the brain.
mesencephalon the midbrain; a region of the brain that surrounds the cerebral aqueduct; includes the tectum and the tegmentum.
tectum the dorsal part of the midbrain; includes the superior and inferior colliculi.
superior colliculi protrusions on top of the midbrain; part of the visual system.
inferior colliculi protrusions on top of the midbrain; part of the auditory system.
brain stem the "stem" of the brain, from the medulla to the diencephalon, excluding the cerebellum.
tegmentum the ventral part of the midbrain; includes the periaqueductal gray matter, reticular formation, red nucleus, and substantia nigra.
reticular formation a large network of neural tissue located in the central region of the brain stem, from the medulla to the diencephalon.
periaqueductal gray matter the region of the midbrain surrounding the cerebral aqueduct; contains neural circuits involved in species-typical behaviors.
red nucleus a large nucleus of the midbrain that receives inputs from the cerebellum and motor cortex and sends axons to motor neurons in the spinal cord.
substantia nigra a darkly stained region of the tegmentum that contains neurons that communicate with the caudate nucleus and putamen in the basal ganglia.
hindbrian the most caudal of the 3 major divisions of the brain; includes the metencephalon and myelencephalon.
cerebellum a major part of the brain located dorsal to the pons, containing the two cerebellar hemispheres, covered with the cerebellar cortex; an important component of the motor system.
cerebellar cortex the cortex that covers the surface of the cerebellum.
deep cerebellar nuclei nuclei located within the cerebellar hemispheres; receive projections from the cerebellar cortex and send projections out of the cerebellum to other parts of the brain.
cerebellar peduncle one of the 3 bundles of axons that attach each cerebellar hemisphere to the dorsal pons.
pons the region of the metencephalon rostral to the medulla, caudal to the midbrain, and ventral to the cerebellum.
medulla oblongata the most caudal portion of the brain; located in the myelencephalon, immediately rostral to the spinal cord.
spinal cord the cord of nervous tissue that extends caudally from the medulla.
spinal root a bundle of axons surrounded by connective tissue that occurs in pairs, which fuse and form a spinal nerve.
cauda equina a bundle of spinal roots located caudal to the end of the spinal cord.
caudal block the anesthesia and paralysis of the lower part of the body produced by injection of a local anesthetic into the cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the cauda equina.
dorsal root the spinal root that contains incoming (afferent) sensory fibers.
ventral root the spinal root that contains outgoing (efferent) motor fibers.
spinal nerve a peripheral nerve attached to the spinal cord.
afferent axon an axon directed toward the CNS, conveying sensory information.
dorsal root ganglion a nodule on a dorsal root that contains cell bodies of afferent spinal nerve neurons.
efferent axon an axon directed away from the CNS, conveying motor commands to muscles and glands.
cranial nerve a peripheral nerve attached directly to the brain.
vagus nerve the largest of the cranial nerves, conveying efferent fibers of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system to organs of the thoratic and abdominal cavities.
olfactory bulb the protrusion at the end of the olfactory nerve; receives input from the olfactory receptors.
somatic nervous system the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the movement of skeletal muscles or transmits somatosensory information to the CNS.
autonomic nervous system (ANS) the portion of the PNS that controls the body's vegetative functions.
sympathetic division the portion of the ANS that controls functions that accompany arousal and expenditure of energy.
sympathetic ganglia nodules that contain synapsys between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system.
sympathetic ganglion chain one of a pair of groups of sympathetic ganglia that lie ventrolateral to the vertebral column.
preganglionic neuron the efferent neuron of the ANS whose cell body is located in a cranial nerve nucleus or in the intermediate horn of the spinal gray matter and whose terminal buttons synapse upon postganglionic neurons in the autonomic ganglia.
postganglionic neuron neurons of the ANS that form synapses directly with their target organ.
parasympathetic division the portion of the ANS that controls functions that occur during a relaxed state.
Created by: jmuelle4
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