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Psychology 1
Fridlund
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Geons and "impossible figures" | Geons are the building blocks of how we perceive objects Impossible figures conflict with our perception of geons; such as "endless staircase" |
| Prototype theory of meaning | we categorize objects based on the prototype it fits that we form; for example "fruitiest fruit", "doggiest dog" |
| Spreading Activation | The thought of one thing can prompt or lead to the thoughts of other related ideas; for example "flower -> rose, violets" "red & flower-> rose->red->apple->ipod" |
| Stroop Effect and Automatization | when there in interference between automatized and deliberate ways of thinking; example is reading the word as opposed to saying the color in which it is written |
| Mental rotation and map image-scanning studies | how long it takes to calculate distance or rotate an object correlates with how quickly we perform these actions in our head; it will takes us longer to answer a rotation question the more we have to rotate an object. |
| Change Blindness | unrecognizing/ being blind by changes in our surrounding environment/ frequent failure to detect changes in a scene |
| Attentional Blink | The tendency to remember things that stick out in an environment and the difficulty of changing attention to another task after focusing on another extensively |
| Nature of Expertise | Experts are not born/ Experts can easily answer problems related to their fields |
| Algorithms and Heuristics | Algorithms:mechanical repetitive procedure for solving a problem or testing every hypothesis/ usually leads to a definite answer Heuristics:strategies for simplifying a problem and generating a satisfactory guess/ mental shortcuts |
| Representative Heuristics | Making a decision that takes a couple of things into consideration/when only a few instances are taken to represent the entire category; assumption that an item resembles members of some category is probably another member of that category. |
| Base-Rate Information | info on frequency; how common the categories are, 30 red marbles and 5 blue marbles therefore red marble is most likely outcome |
| Availability Heuristic | Making a decision based on the last easily recalled available alternative/Which comes easiest to mind is confused with what is true |
| Overconfidence | tendency to overestimate accuracy of knowledge |
| Confirmation Bias | Searching for information that confirms ones thoughts and or decisions |
| Framing Bias and "Spin" | When one's thoughts and or decisions are influenced by the wording of a question |
| Natural Selection | Survival of the fittest; those with more favorable traits will pass on their genes |
| Variability | -larger gene pool -more chance of survival |
| Selection Pressures | -environment challenges species -wards of the weak genes |
| Inheritance Mechanisms | -inheritance of genes -taking care of kin -reproduction |
| Vestigal Structures and Importance to Darwin | -show evolution!! -traits no longer needed for survival become useless and smaller in bodies -evidence of environment adaptation |
| Neoteny | Juvenile state that never shows adult stage/ appealing young facial features stay prominent in adulthood to encourage care |
| Personal vs. Inclusive Fitness | Personal-I want to reproduce to pass on my genes Inclusive- I want to help my sibling reproduce so that a part of my genes are passed on |
| Kin Selection | natural selection that favors altruistic behaviors |
| Vervet Monkeys and Calls | -inhereted behaviors -calls that warn about predators |
| Taxis | moving towards or away a stimulus Types include: photo, chemo, and geo |
| Fixed Action Patters and Releasing Stimuli | -flexible -modal action patterns -triggered by releaser ex. yawning |
| Imprinting and Critical (Sensitive) Periods | -imprinting to see who mom is -happens during a critical period of development -popular one includes smell |
| Corvid Intelligence w/examples | -intelligent birds -self awareness and tool use |
| Tryon behavior-genetics study | -rat experiment -7th generation rats are smarter at solving maze |
| Evidence on human infant imprinting | -fetus/babies learn the voice of parents -smell |
| Types of mating system | monogamy- one exclusive partner polygamy- animal with multiple partners polyandry- one woman, many males polygyny- one man, many women promiscuity |
| Rationale for Sexual Reproduction | -pass on genes to next generation -create sexual variance -hedge against environmental change -Red Queen Theory: protect against pathogens |
| Advantage of sexual reproduction | -passing genes on |
| Sexual Dimorphhism | -females tend to be bigger in the animal kingdom -differences between appearances in males and females |
| Evolutionary explanations of altruism | -allows for favors -cooperation -taking care of kin saves even a small part of your genes |
| Evolutionary explanations of sex roles | Females invest a lot in reproduction therefore are pickier about mates. Men have a lot of sperm therefore they have less to invest. |
| Sexual Selection | -Competition for mates -males try to show off to show reproductive potential |
| Male displays resulting from sexual selection | -peacocks and their feathers that don't really have any useful purpose -large feathers show "good genes" |
| Incitement and "female choice" in mating | -pheromones -gets to choose the male CRYPTIC FEMALE CHOICE: female's ovum will only allow one sperm to penetrate |
| Aspects of human mating system | Incest w/cost:overstate genetic deformities are 3%-unrelated, 4%-first cousins, 10%-siblings Out-breeding drive and MHC finding:people are not attracted to their own smell or similar ones |
| Aspects of human mating system pt.II | Mate guarding:male possessiveness, show jealousy + violence Mating Criteria: are you fit to be my mate? Incitement and flirting: hair, make-up, dress/girls are more likely to initiate meetings in bars 3/4 of the time |
| Kinsey Survey | 1st major survey of sexual behavior |
| Helen Fisher's Phases of Love | Lust:love seeking/driven in both sexes by testosterone and estrogen Attraction: love-struck:fixating on "target"/loss of sleep and appetite/driven mainly by dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine |
| Helen Fisher's Phases of Love | Attachment:developing a bond, lessening of attraction and lust. Driven mainly by oxytocin(released during orgasm and through breast milk, and vasopressin, which shows higher levels in bonded pairs and monogamous animals |
| Sexual orientation and possible determinants | -early relations with parents -early sexual behaviors |
| Correlated Variations with sexual orientation | females with more androgens -> lesbians 2D:4D finger ratio, males show female ratios, females show male rations when homosexual |
| "Gaydar" and sexual orientation stereotypes | Gaydars are not accurate at all, the personality of a gay man as portrayed in media isn't entirely true. Will and Grace; will played a better gay man than an actual gay man |
| organizing effects of androgens and estrogens | androgens produce testosterone and levels determine fetal sex withing the 3rd or 4th month of development. estrogen is responsible for estraidol and is prominently found in girls |
| sensitive period in sexual differentiation | during 3rd of 4th month of pregnancy high testosterone triggers male genitalia growth while low testosterone triggers female genetalia growth |
| Role of Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus | larger in males, and contributes to male sexual behavior, if a girl has a large one her sexual behavior will model that of males |
| Activating Effects of Sex Hormones on human sexual function, motivation, attraction, parenting | men = testosterone which triggers sex drive, vasopressin bond him with female and their offspring women = estrogen which triggers arousal and levels prepare them for parenthood |
| What partners seek in mates | women are pickier as they are hoping to find someone who will stay with them throughout child bearing; have a lot more to invest. males not so much. females may turn male away due to smell |
| Sex differences in jealousy | men get angry over unfaithful sex whereas women will get angry over emotional attachment infedelity. |
| gender identity | the sex a person better identifies with |
| hermaphroditism | both male and female reproductive organs present |
| common types of intersexes | overactive adrenal glands in female lead to ambiguous sex organs, happens in 1 to 2000 kids |
| How should intersexed people be reared | should be identified based on primary external apperance |
| genetic and evolutionary hypotheses about sexual orientation | homosexuality can be caused by the activation or inactivation of a gene/s. |
| James-Lange Theory and evidence for and against | interpretation of a stimulus directly evokes autonomic changes situation->appraisal->action->perception of action |
| Schachter-Singer Theory | Intensity of the physiological state determines the intensity of the emotion/Cognitive appraisal of the situation identifies the type of emotion/A given type of arousal might feel like fear, anger, joy, or none of these depending on the situation |
| Nature of Polygraph and ways of detecting lies | -records sympathetic nervous system -not very accurate -displays too many false positives -people felt too much stress undergoing the test |
| Influences on hapiness | -money can't make you happy -not having money can make you sad |
| Effects of crying | -people report they feel worse afterwards -no known reason -increases sympathetic nervous system responses, increased breathing, heart rate ect. |
| Epigenetic inheritance | -may account for many personality traits |
| Epigenetic landscape | some genetic traits can be molded by the environment |
| "Nature-nurture" problem | are traits more influenced by genes"nature" or by environments"nurture" |
| Identical vs. fraternal twins | -identical twins are monozygotic and often live similar lives -fraternal twins are dizygotic and are no more similar than brother and sister |
| Effects of drinking and smoking during pregnancy | drinking can lead to fetal alcohol syndrom where baby is in permanent drunk like state, drugs affect a baby's brain |
| Capabilities of newborns | -ability to recognize faces -recognition of new sounds |
| cross-sectional vs. longitudinal studies | cross sectional studies a group of people around the same age and or time, whereas longitudinal studies follows single group of individuals |
| Cohort effects | group of people born at the same time or who enter a group at the same time/ time you were born in influences who you are |
| Schemas(Piaget) | an organized way of interacting with objects Jean Piaget – theory that effect of experience depends on someone’s maturity and previous experiences; child constructs new mental processes as he/she interacts w/environment |
| Assimilation | applying old schemas to new objects |
| Accommodation | modifying old schema to fit something new |
| Object permanence and how it's measured | The ability to recognize that objects still exist even if they are not seen |
| Conservation of number, volume, mass | children fail to recognize that the same amount of numbers, volume, or mass can appear differently and still contain the same amount |
| Erikson's social development model | 8 stages- failure to master these stages leads to consequences in adulthood |
| Key issues in adolescence, midlife, and old age | A-Who am I? M-Am I on the right track? OA-Have I lived a full life? |
| Temperament | people’s tendency to be either active or inactive, outgoing or reserved, and to respond vigorously or quietly to new stimuli |
| Relational and physical aggression | boys are more physical whereas girls are more manipulative (smack talk) |
| Continuous vs. stage theories | some theories of development assume continuous progress; others postulate significant discontinuities (stages) |
| Effects of cloth vs. wire mothers and determinant of attachment | Monkeys prefered the cloth mother and only the mother when they were hungry -comfort is essential in attachment |
| Stockholm Syndrome | victims of kidnappers develop positive feelings towards their kidnappers |
| Effects of abuse on attachment and resilience | -abused are more attached -loyalty to abusers -kids who are severely abused are affected for life |
| Effects of divorce on children | -reunion fantasies -regressions, clinginess -guilt and responsibility for divorce -thumbsucking/bed wetting -acting out |
| Primacy effects on social impressions | 1st impressions are the strongest and most important |
| methods of assessing prejudice | implicit associations test-measures reactions to combinations of categories |
| results of implicit associations test | white people reacted to white/pleasant combo and black/unpleasant combo |
| Internal vs. External attributions | Internal attribution: explanations based on someone’s individual characteristics, such as attitudes/personality traits/abilities External attribution: explanations based on the situation, including events that presumably would influence anyone |
| "Fundamental attribution error" and culture | to make internal attributions for people’s behavior even when we see evidence for an external influence on behavior |
| Actor-observer effects | internal attributions for others behaviors while external attributions for themselves |
| self-serving attributional bias | attributions that we adopt to maximize our credit for our success & minimize our blame for our failures |
| self-handicapping strategies | intentionally putting self in an unfavorable situation as an excuse for bad behavior |
| factors affecting persuasiveness of messages | when people take a decision seriously they evaluate evidence and logic behind each message |
| "Foot-in-the-door" | getting someone to agree to a small request increases chance for agreement on a larger request |
| "Door-in-the-face" | getting someone to refuse a larger request leading them to agree to a smaller one |
| "Bait-and-switch" | agree to a favorable deal and keep making more demands |
| "thats-not-all" | makes an offer but changes it before agreement takes place |
| Cognitive dissonance | behavior that is inconsistent with attitudes creates bad feelings, can be modified by: -change behavior -change attitude -adopt a new attitude |
| Factors promoting friendship | -attractiveness -similarities -familiarity |
| biology and physical attractiveness | -normal is perceived as attractive -attractiveness is attributed to health |
| characteristics of successful marriages | -not living together before marriage -no signs of contempt (sarcasm/rolling eyes) |
| Diffusion of responsibility | a chain of command leads people to feel less responsible for actions |
| social loafing | making less effort in group as opposed to working alone |
| group polarization | leaning towards the same decision sways a group towards that direction |
| groupthink | when people suppress their own ideas and only listen to one; ex. CEO |
| ways to reduce prejudice | -people work in teams -cooperative goals |
| basic setup of prisoner's dilemma | situation where people choose between a cooperative act & a competitive act that benefits themselves but hurts the other Ex: You and your friend commit a crime... |
| miligram obedience study | • Participant was instructed to shock the other person when instructed to do so & to increase the voltage each time -people are very obedient -used to explain german mistreatment of jews |
| stanford prison experiment | setup: half prisoners, half security -officers let power get to their heads -prisoners were humiliated and suffered breakdowns -study was stopped 6 days in |
| factors promoting obedience | -participant is not responsible -more obedient with experimenters in the room -situational |
| Kohlberg's view of moral equipment | 6 stages each leading to a better way of making decisions |
| Problems with Kohlberg's view | -not culture neutral -emphasizes justice to the exclusion of other values -evenly androcentric |
| Kinsey Scale | -Reconceptualized Sexual Orientation -Sexual behavior a continuum -scale has 7 equal intervals, but is a continuum |
| The Klein Scale | -less emotionally "loaded" reference points -sexual behavior during past, present, ideal -includes sexual attraction, sexual fantasies, emotional preference, social, lifestyle, sexual |
| Piagets Stages of Development | 1)sensimotor 2)preoperational state (2-7)yrs -lack of perspective taking(egocentric) -lacks conservation of mass and quantity 3)concrete-operational stage(7-11) -can do that what they cant in stage 2 -solve problems that apply to actual events |
| Piagets II | 4)Formal operational stage (11yrs+) -can understand abstract ideas and think hypothetically -can use strategy and logical reasoning |
| Parenting Style: Authorative | Parents have: -high standards -impose control -warm and responsive to child's communication Children result: -self-reliant -cooperative with others -do well in school |
| Parenting Style: Authoritarian | Parents: -firm control -emotionally distant Children are: -law-abiding but distrustful -dependent |
| Parenting Style: Permissive | Parents are: -warm:loving -undemanding Children are: -socially irresponsible |
| Parenting Style: Uninvolved/Indifferent | Parents are: -spend little time -provide basic needs Children are: -impulsive -undisciplined |
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deebanana
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