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Learning- psych 101
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| learning | Changes in behavior or other psychological processes resulting from experience or practice |
| Associative Learning * | * Changes that result from the formation of new associations between ideas or between situations and actions * Classical Conditioning * Operant Conditioning |
| Classical Conditioning | New connection between stimulus and response |
| Other examples of Classical Conditioning | * Conditioning of a doll * US= Loud noise * UR= Fear response * CS = Doll |
| Extinction of a conditioned Response | * Repeated presentation of the CS without the US leads to a breaking of the relationship * CS=(no response) |
| Generalization | Spread of the effects of conditioning to objects similar to the CS. |
| Discrimination Procedure | Particular CS is paired with US Other potential CS’s NOT paired with US Result: Response occurs only when particular CS is presented |
| Important Characteristics of classical conditioning | Responses are generally glandular secretions or other responses controlled by the autonomic nervous system Stimulus occurs before response Little or no conscious control |
| Associations | We learn that two things go together Touching hot stove– being burned Feeling hungry– go to McDonald’s Concept of associative chains as explaining complex knowledge |
| Schemas | Mental representations that summarize what we know |
| Operant Conditioning | Skinner and his basic principle: Behaviors are affected by their consequences |
| Basic Paradigm: Skinner Box | Rat in Box Lever in Box Food Dispenser Grid on Floor |
| Positive Reinforcement | Behavior->Introduction of something favorable (pleasant) The behavior becomes stronger. Studying Hard for Exam leads to high grade Expressing a certain opinion leads to acceptance into a group |
| Negative Reinforcement | Behavior-> Removal of something unfavorable (unpleasant) The behavior becomes stronger. Studying leads to removal of threat of Probation. |
| Extinction | Behavior -> No presentation or withholding of something pleasant, behavior becomes weaker. Good work does not lead to any praise |
| Punishment | Behavior -> introduction of something unfavorable (unpleasant) Weakens behavior BUT perhaps only as long as the threat of punishment continues |
| Important Characteristics of operant conditioning | Response occurs before the stimulus that affects it Responses are those that involve skeletal muscles Generally responses over which we have voluntary control |
| Observational Learning | Bandura’s experiments 1.Observe Model 2.Placed in new situation 3.Behavior copies model |
| Characteristics of observational learning | model not punished, identification with model |
| Garcia’s Experiments | Procedure: Present new food AND flashing light Cause sickness to stomach. Result: Animal learns to avoid food, but not flashing light Cause shocks to be given. Result: Animal learns to avoid flashing light, but not food |
| Neurotransmitter Buildup | Change in the sending neuron |
| Long-term potentiation | Change in receiving neuron |
| Formation of new synapses | Dendritic growth |
| Perception | The construction of mental representations based on sensory information |
| Memory | The retention of mental representations |
| Thinking | Use of mental representations to solve problems, create something new, or achieve some other goal. Sometimes we talk about manipulation of information |
| Analogical Representation | Something that resembles at least some of the features of the thing or quality being represented. An example is a visual image |
| Symbolic Representation | A symbol is arbitrary in its relationship to what is represented. E.g. language--- “Friendship” |
| Propositions | A representation that involves some assertion about the world |
| Concepts | Representations that can stand for an entire class of objects, ideas, or events “Intelligent people” “Prejudice” “Choral Concerts” Important for being able to deal with new experiences |
| Reasoning | using logic to solve problems |
| Deductive Reasoning | Going from a set of principles to a particular conclusion— “All college students are intelligent” “Wanda is not intelligent” “Wanda is not a college student” |
| Inductive Reasoning | Going from a specific instance or set of instances to a more general principle “Joe is a nice person and has red hair” “Most red-haired persons are nice” |
| Algorithm | A thought process that will guaranty an answer |
| Heuristic | A procedure that increases the chances of an answer, but does not guaranty an answer |
| Availability | Try to think of instances of something occurring and use that to make a conclusion. |
| Representativeness | Assume that a particular instance is representative |
| Problem of Confirmation Bias | We tend to look for confirming examples, not disconfirming ones |
| Memory | Persistence of Information over time Involves coding, storage, and retrieval of information |
| Declarative information | Knowing “that”, requires "effortful" processing |
| Procedural information | Knowing "how to", may involve implicit learning |
| Coding (acquisition) | We perceive and understand new information as a first start in the memory process. How this is done is critical |
| Storage | Maintenance of information over time. Rehearsal or other forms of elaboration are critical– e.g. Maintenance rehearsal vs meaningful rehearsal |
| Interactive imagery | creating image where all objects interact |
| Retrieval | utilization of remembered information |
| Sensory Memory | Rich but brief storage of recently experienced information |
| Visual Memory | Detailed copy, large capacity, 1/4 second |
| Short-term or Working Memory | What we are actively thinking about Linguistic Small capacity– 7 items or so Decays in 20 seconds or less without rehearsal Mental Scan of the items in memory |
| Long-Term or Permanent Memory | Not necessarily active at the moment Semantic or Meaningful Large Capacity Immune to forgetting? But, perhaps retrieval failures are important Use of meaningful retrieval cues |
| Decay | Information simply disappears without rehearsal |
| Interference | New information interferes with old information E.g. telephone numbers |
| Retrieval Failure | Cues are not available |
| Bartlett- War of the Ghosts | Retelling of the story involves sharpening and leveling that depends upon background |
| Lashley Experiments | localization question |
| Long-term Potentiation | Learning experiences lead to more buildup of serotonin, increasing the efficiency of the synaptic action |
| Language | Special set of speech symbols that can be easily manipulated to generate novel messages |
| Phonemes | Basic units of speech; smallest unit that makes a difference |
| Morphemes | Smallest unit of meaning e.g bicycle or -ed, made up of sets of phonemes |
| Creative or Productive | Can create new utterances that represent something never done or thought before |
| Referential or Symbolic | Items inside the head come to stand for items in the outside world. |
| Structured | Grammatical rules determine how words can be arranged into new utterances |
| Meaningful | Language exists on two levels- one is the actual string of words or symbols. The other is that underlying meaning “They are eating apples” Deep Structure vs. Surface Structure |
| Some Things Language Does | Provides flexible symbols that can represent and express complex ideas, Provides ways of creating new ideas— New arrangements of existing symbols,Provides Mechanism for Self-Regulation |
| Whorf Hypothesis | The structure of language that a person speaks determines how that person thinks |
| “Modified” Whorf Hypothesis | Does the form of language expression in artificial devices affect thinking? |
| Developmental Psychology | Changes throughout the life cycle Focus on childhood and infancy Cognitive and Social Changes |
| Types of Development | Cognitive and Social |
| Nurture | We are the products of our experiences. We start with a tabula rasa and experience “writes” on it. |
| Nature | We are simply the product of our genetic inheritance. Development is the “unfolding” of what is already there. |
| Interactive View | We are genetically programmed to do certain things, one of which is to learn. One version is that we are biologically prepared to exhibit certain characteristics, but their specific form is culturally determined |
| Infantalization | We are born with relatively underdeveloped characteristics. |
| Long Period of Dependency | Infantalization, Trade-off between being highly developed at birth and having great learning potential |
| Cognitive Development | Jean Piaget Stages of Understanding- Each characterized by a way of “thinking” about the world schema for understanding Movement to a next stage is discrete |
| Sensorimotor | Birth to roughly 2 World is what can be sensed here and now Primitive action schemas- child thinks of everything as the result of her/his actions- The world consists of things that can be reached, sucked on etc. |
| Pre-Operational | Age 2 to 7 Object Permanence Can carry out basic cognitive operations; has trouble coordinating them Conservation problems Ego-Centrism |
| Concrete Operational | Ages 7 to 11 Able to deal with thought processes involving concrete operations Some difficulty with abstract concepts Problem of “necessary truth” |
| Formal Operational | Ages 11 and up Can deal with abstract concepts Logic problems E.g. “If A is true, then B is true” “B is not true” Is A true? Universe of the possible |
| Schema | a framework for organizing information. E.g."politician" schema |
| Assimilation | New information is interpreted in terms of a schema |
| Accommodation | New information causes a modification of the schema |
| Metacognition | Ability to monitor our thought processes; “Thinking about thinking”. |
| Lorenz Studies | imprinting of ducks, concept of "critical period" |
| Harlow Study | The “wire” and “cloth” mothers “Contact Comfort” Long-term effects of lack of contact comfort; Isolation |
| Socialization | Learn how to become a member of a social group. |
| Socialization by parents | Dimension of expectations- Demanding or Permissive Dimension of responsiveness- Responsive or not |
| Self- Concept | A set of ideas about one’s distinctiveness. |
| Self | Guides thoughts and behaviors Originally comes from attitudes and beliefs of others. Gradually becomes internalized |
| Erikson | One 0-2 Trust vs. Mistrust Two 2-3 Autonomy vs. shame Three 3-6 Initiative vs. guilt Four 6-12 Competence vs. inferiority |
| Erikson (Continued) | Five Adolescence Identify vs. Role Confusion Six Early Adult Intimacy vs. Isolation Seven Middle Age Productivity vs. Stagnation Eight Later Years Integrity vs. Despair |
| Kohlberg’s Moral Development: Pre-Conventional | Level 1 Avoid Punishment Level 2 Gain Reward |
| Kohlberg: Conventional Morality: Social Relationships | Level 3 Codes of Parents Level 4 Law and Order |
| Kohlberg: Post-Conventional Morality: Abstract Principles | Level 5 Social Contract- Greatest Good Level 6 Social Justice |
| Intelligence | Individual differences in the ability to use Cognitive Processes |
| Alfred Binet and Intelligence Testing | Goal: Identifying children who would need help in school Procedure: Ask questions related to school work Result: After much activity, was able to get a test that would be a good predictor |
| Major Characteristic: Age Grading of Questions | age of grading of questions, Mental age "grade" for the test. Chronological age= actual age in years IQ = MA/CA x 100 |
| Nature of Intelligence | Binet– One Factor Thurstone: Several Primary Abilities Verbal Comprehension Word Fluency Number Space Memory Perceptual Speed Reasoning Gardner- Multiple Intelligences (not unlike Thurstone) |
| Nature of Intelligence (continued) | Sternberg 1. Analytical- Able to figure out answers to well-defined problems 2. Creative- Can adapt to new situations and create new ideas 3. Practical- Able to work well in real-life situations where things are often poorly defined |
| Origins of Intelligence | Inheritance and Environment |
| Use and Abuse | School placement U.S. Immigration Policies– 1924 laws Claims about the effects of race The importance of within group and between group differences |
Created by:
andyg41
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