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PSCY 4800
history of psychology
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Psychometrics | the measurement of mental processes through psychological tests; the term is sometimes used interchangeably with advances in statistics and data analysis. |
| Alfred Binet | a French psychologist usually credited with inventing the intelligence test; he worked to create a battery of mental tests to identify individual differences and produced the first test to measure intelligence in children in 1905. |
| Theodore Simon | a physician who worked with Binet to produce the first intelligence test. |
| Charles Spearman | a psychologist who invented an early form of the statistical technique of factor analysis and introduced the idea that there is a general factor of intelligence, as well as specific factors. |
| “g” factor | a general intelligence factor that purportedly accounts for the high intercorrelation of scores on various tests comprising an IQ test. |
| “s” factor | Spearman’s term for the specific ability reflected in a subtest of an intelligence test. |
| William Stern | a pioneer in the study of cognitive development, applied psychology, and intelligence testing; one of Ebbinghaus’s best-known students. |
| Intelligence quotient (IQ) | mental age divided by chronological age – a term introduced by William Stern; the abbreviation “IQ” was coined by Lewis Terman. |
| Lewis Madison Terman | psychologist who, while at Stanford, translated Binet and Simon’s intelligence test into English and revised its content to create the Stanford-Binet; also known for initiating a longitudinal study of gifted California school children. |
| Stanford-Binet | an intelligence test devised by Terman from the original test introduced by Binet and Simon. |
| Longitudinal studies | studies performed on a group over an extended time period. |
| Nancy Bayley | a psychologist best known for her Bayley Scales of Infant Development and for her longitudinal studies of intelligence and its stability across a changing environment. |
| David Wechsler | a psychologist who invented a mental test called the Wechsler-Bellevue, which evolved into the WISC and the WAIS. |
| Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) | invented by David Wechsler, an important alternative to the Stanford-Binet test for assessing IQ in children. |
| Wechsler Intelligence Scale (WAIS) | a popular intelligence test invented by David Wechsler for determining adult IQ. |
| Craniometry | literally, the measurement of skulls. |
| Henry Herbert Goddard | a psychologist who was an ardent supporter of the hereditarian position concerning intelligence; best known for his book on the inheritance of “feeblemindedness” in the Kallikak family. |
| Kallikak | pseudonym for the family Goddard studied that he believed proved the hereditary nature of mental retardation. |
| Army Alpha | one of the first IQ tests designed for group administration, the Army Alpha was appropriate for literate takers. |
| Army Beta | one of the first IQ tests designed for group administration, the Army Beta was made for illiterate test takers. |
| Cyril Lodowic Burt | an important early worker in the study of intelligence and intelligence tests and the first psychologist to be knighted. His ardent hereditarian views of intelligence may have led to fraudulent results from some of his twin studies. |
| Florence Goodenough | a psychologist best known for the Draw-a-Person Test, Goodenough rebutted Stoddard and Wellman’s work on the effects of environment on IQ scores. |
| Joy Paul Guilford | a psychologist who was one of the first to provide a multifactor alternative to Spearman’s g, arguing for more than 100 components of intelligence. |
| Louis L. Thurstone | a psychologist whose major contributions to psychology came from his advances in factor analysis, which he used to argue for seven primary mental abilities. |
| Raymond Bernard Cattell | a psychologist influenced by Spearman and Burt who used factor analysis and questionnaires to create the 16 Personality Factors Test, among his many other contributions. |
| Quinn McNemar | a psychologist whose contributions to psychometrics include refinements in factor analysis, a test bearing his name, and the idea that there may be little difference in predicting from a single intelligence factor or from several. |
| Charles Osgood | a psychologist who extended the idea of factor analysis to develop a measurement technique to assess word meanings – the semantic differential. |
| Semantic differential | a measurement technique developed by Charles Osgood used to assess word meanings. |
| Wendell Richard “Tex” Garner | a psychologist who, by applying mathematics to the analysis of psychological problems, has analyzed information and communication and has done applied work in radar jamming. |
| Signal detection theory | a mathematically based theory that assumes the observer in a perceptual experiment is an active decision-maker who makes perceptual judgments under conditions of uncertainty. |
| Reliability | a test’s consistency of measurement over time. |
| Validity | the extent to which a test measure what it is supposed to measure. |
| Generalizability | the extent to which sample results apply to different populations. |
| Anne Anastasi | a psychologist whose main contributions include work on test construction and validation as well as on psychological testing in general. |
| E. E. “Ted” Cureton | a psychologist and student of E. L. Thorndike who made substantial contributions to psychometric issues such as reliability and validity. |
| Lee J. Cronbach | a psychologist whose contributions to psychometrics include the Cronbach-Meehl model of the construct of validity and Cronbach alpha, which is the most common statistical measure of relation between a given scale item and the overall score on a scale. |
| Sir Ronald A. Fisher | a British statistician and innovator in the analysis and variance and several nonparametric statistical procedures whose greatest contribution was his conceptualization of testing the null hypothesis. |
| Jacob Cohen | critic of the misapplication of statistics in psychology; particularly opposed to the misuse of hypothesis testing. |
| Paul E. Meehl | contributor to many diverse areas of psychology, perhaps the foremost critic of psychological methodology and an advocate for psychometric sophistication. |
| 16 Personality Factors Test (16 PF) | the test created by Raymond B. Cattell, who constructed it by reducing some 4000 trait descriptions to 16 binary personality factors. |
| NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO PI-R) | a personality assessment device suggesting that only five factors are needed to characterize personality – neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness/ antagonism, and conscientiousness. |
| Hans J. Eysenck | an eclectic psychologist who was a developer of biological measures of intelligence and who suggested that personality can be understood through the use of as few as two factors – neuroticism and introversion/ extraversion. |
| Neuroticism | one of Eysenck’s personality components that is a measure of an individual’s emotional stability or instability. |
| Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) | created by Hathaway and McKinley, a personality assessment device consisting of 550 statements with which the person either agrees or disagrees. Each statement is linked to one or more of the test’s 10 clinical scales. |
| Starke Hathaway | a psychologist who, along with J. C. McKinley, developed the MMPI. |
| Rorschach Inkblot Test | based on the psychodynamic approach to personality, the test assesses a person’s responses to a series of inkblots. |
| Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) | the test, originally developed by Henry Murray and Christina Morgan, that consists of 30 pictures depicting ambiguous social situations to which ha person responds by creating a story about the situation in each scene. |
| Herman Rorschach | a Swiss psychiatrist who developed the popular inkblot test that bears his name. |
| Christiana Drummond Morgan | co-inventor of the TAT with Henry Murray. |
| Henry A. Murray | the psychologist and co-developer of the TAT test who wrote Explorations in Personality, in which he identified 20 psychological needs, such as a need for achievement. |
| William Herbert Sheldon | a psychologist most remembered for his body type theory and a personality theory based on the body types. |
| Ernst Kretschmer | a German psychiatrist who developed a body type theory that influenced William Sheldon. |
| Gabriel Tarde | a French jurist and an important early anticipator of social psychology who was particularly struck by the importance of imitation in human behavior. |
| Gustave LeBon | trained as a physician, LeBon’s book The Crowd – containing an analysis of groups and group behavior – may be considered the major point of departure for an actual social psychology. |
| Emile Durkheim | a pioneer in empirical sociology who is credited with founding modern social science as an accepted academic discipline in France. Many of his works are fundamental to social psychology. |
| Max Weber | often classified as a sociologist, he is best known in psychology for his writings on the protestant work ethic and on charisma in leaders. |
| Norman Triplett | investigated the effects of competition on performance in what is often considered social psychology’s first empirical study. |
| Floyd H. Allport | a pioneer of social psychology whose 1924 textbook, Social Psychology, helped solidify the field as an empirical discipline and who is known for his studies of social facilitation. |
| Gordon W. Allport | a pioneer of social psychology whose primary interest was a humanistic and social psychological approach to personality. |
| Carl Murchison | the initiator of The Handbook of Social Psychology, and most remembered as the editor of several early journals friendly to social psychology and the first three volumes of A History of Psychology in Autobiography. |
| David McClelland | a social psychologist best known for his many studies of achievement and motivation. |
| Gardner Murphy | an early leader in social psychology who created the program at Columbia that produced such important students as Rensis Liker, Theodore Newcomb, and Muzafer Sherif. |
| Lois Barclay Murphy | a research psychologist, much of whose work concerned the interaction of personality and social influences on the developing child. |
| Carl Iver Hovland | a Hull Ph.D., from Yale who, after World War II, became the leader of Yale’s social psychology program. In his research, he explored attitude change, finding evidence for a “sleeper effect,” among other contributions. |
| Sleeper effect | refers to attitude changes over time in which the association between the message and its source may fade, with the result that one remembers the content of the message after the source has been forgotten. |
| Theodore M. Newcomb | a social psychologist whose most remembered research involved the longitudinal assessment of attitude changes in students at a small women’s college. |
| Muzafer Sherif | the social psychologist who is best known for his research on intergroup conflict, in which he created and then alleviated hostile attitudes between two groups of boys at a summer camp. |
| Solomon Asch | a Gestalt-oriented social psychologist best known for his studies of conformity to group social pressure and person perception. |
| Stanley Milgram | a social psychologist known particularly for his studies of obedience. In his most famous experiment, Milgram found that most people would subject other people to apparently harmful electric shock if told to do so by someone in authority. |
| Fritz Heider | a perceptual researcher in the Gestalt tradition whose cognitive balance theory was instrumental in creating the study of attribution. |
| Cognitive balance | refers to a tendency to perceive information in ways consistent with pre-existing beliefs and attitudes. |
| Attribution | refers to how we perceive, interpret, and account for people’s actions. |
| Edward Jones | a social psychologist who is best known for his research on how we modify our attributions as a function of how events directly affect us. |
| Harold Kelley | a social psychologist whose attribution research indicated that we frequently incorporate aspects of both the environmental situation and the individual we are evaluating when we make attributions. |
| Fundamental attribution error | the inconsistency between how we evaluate ourselves and how we evaluate others. |
| Stanley Schachter | a social psychologist of wide scope who, in one of his best-known studies, found that social factors are linked to the way we attribute our emotions. |
| Albert Bandura | the developer of social learning theory; his work often dealt with aggression. |
| Social learning theory | the theory developed by Bandura that focuses on the role of modeling or imitation in the acquisition of social behavior. |
| Philip Zimbardo | a psychologist and researcher who conducted an important study on the nature of social roles; simulated a prison environment with normal adults and found that subjects quickly learned social role appropriate to their status as either guards or prisoners. |
| Bystander apathy | an area of research in which emergency situations are simulated to observe their effects on people exposed to them. |
| John Darley | the researcher who, with Bibb Latane, has conducted important studies of bystander apathy. |
| Diffusion of responsibility | refers to a situation in which several people have the possibility of acting, but no individual has the clear responsibility to act. |
| Otto Klineberg | the first head of Columbia University’s social psychology department and the author of Race Differences, in which he described differences between races on a variety of psychological characteristics. |
| Kenneth B. Clark | the first Black president of the APA who, in a famous study of self-concept and racial identification, found that African American preschool children preferred white dolls to black ones. |
| Janet Taylor Spence | the APA president in 1984 who, among other things, is known for her studies of gender differences. |
| Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) | the questionnaire developed by Janet Spence and Robert Helmreich for use in studying gender differences. |
| Sandra Bem | a pioneer in the study of gender differences who is perhaps best known for developing the Bem Sex Role Inventory. |
| Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) | developed by Sandra Bem, the widely used scale that describes the degree to which a person conforms to traditional sex-role stereotypes. |
| Eleanor Emmons Maccoby | a social and developmental psychologist who is particularly known for her study of gender issues, which culminated in 1974 with the publication of Sex Differences, with Carol Jacklin. |
| Robert “Bob” Sears | a social and developmental psychologist who was APA president in 1951 and directed the Child Welfare Research Station at Iowa from 1942-1949. |
| Pauline “Pat” S. Sears | collaborated with such researchers as Kurt Lewin and Leon Festinger at Iowa’s Child Welfare Research Station. With Bob Sears, she continued Terman’s longitudinal research on gifted children after she and her husband retired. |
| Social constructionism | a theory in sociology that emerged in the mid-1960s and quickly generalized to all the social sciences. |
| Walter Van Dyke Bingham | a psychologist who was one of the original developers of the Army Alpha and Beta tests; chaired a committee that developed the Army General Classification Test, which was used to sort recruits in World War II. |
| Walter Dill Scott | Wundt’s student who became perhaps the first industrial/organizational psychologist. One of the first professors of applied psychology; he formed a corporation after World War I to do personnel selection and consultation on management issues. |
| Morris S. Viteles | a psychologist who combined a successful academic career at the University of Pennsylvania with work for a variety of industries. He wrote some of the early classic books in industrial psychology. |
| Hawthorne Effect | derived from a series of studies of workplace conditions and job performance, the Hawthorne Effect suggests that any workplace change that makes people feel important is likely to improve their work performance. |
| Sir Frederic Charles Bartlett | an early contributor to the study of cognition who popularized the schema as the basic unit of thought. |
| Schema | the schema (plural, schemata) is a mental structure that organizes and summarizes related experiences. Schema theory is central to modern cognitive psychology. |
| Reconstructive memory | refers to a tendency to construct plausible, but not necessarily accurate, memory elements when the actual memory details have been lost. |
| Lev S. Vygotsky | an anticipator of the cognitive revolution who held that mainstream empirical psychology was not well suited to explain higher cognitive processes. |
| Jean Piaget | a Swiss psychologist who made pioneering contributions in the study of child cognitive development. |
| Genetic epistemology | the name Piaget gave to his program of study, which was genetic in the sense of developmental and epistemological because it studied the foundations of human knowledge. |
| Edouard Claparede | the Swiss psychologist and the founder of the Rousseau Institute for the study of educational science who offered Piaget a position there. |
| Assimilation | in Piaget’s psychology, the incorporation of experiences that fit the infant’s schemata. |
| Accommodation | in Piaget’s psychology, the changing of existing schemata to make them conform to reality. |
| Sensorimotor stage | in Piaget’s stage theory of development, the first stage, lasting from birth until about age 2. During the stage, the infant learns the relations between its sensory apparatus and its motor responses. |
| Object permanence | in Piaget’s theory, a child displays object permanence when it response as though it realizes an object continues to exist even when it is no longer being sensed. |
| Preoperational stage | the second stage in Piaget’s developmental theory, lasting from about age 2 to age 7. During this stage, the child discovers the operations that will be sued for solving problems later. |
| Conservation of quantity | in Piaget’s developmental theory, the realization that the quantity of something remains the same even with changes in appearance. Conservation of quantity is lacking in children in the preoperational stage. |
| Concrete operational stage | the third stage in Piaget’s theory of child development, lasting between the ages of about 7 and 11. During this stage the child displays conservation when dealing with concrete objects but not with abstract concepts. |
| Formal operational stage | the fourth stage of Piaget’s theory, which extends from about 12 or 13 through adulthood. The person in this stage can think abstractly and has the cognitive ability to test problem solutions hypothetically and systematically. |
| Barbel Inhelder | a long-time colleague and collaborator of Piaget and one of the first important female contributors to cognitive psychology. |
| Lawrence Kohlberg | particularly known for his study of moral development. |
| Preconventional stage | the first stage in Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning in which moral behavior is motivated by the avoidance of punishment and the desire to be rewarded. |
| Conventional stage | the second of Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning in which moral decisions are motivated by social rules. |
| Postconventional stage | Kohlberg’s third stage of moral reasoning in which the individual is guided by internalized moral principles. |
| Cybernetics | the term coined by Norbert Wiener to refer to the study of the fundamental control processes of behavior in both animals and machines. |
| Alan Turing | considered the “father” of artificial intelligence. |
| Avram Noam Chomsky | considered historically the most important contributor to the science of linguistics, he may have started the “cognitive revolution” with his critique of Skinner’s book on language acquisition. |
| Charles Kay Ogden | an English linguistic reformer; the most important bridge between psychology and linguistics before Chomsky. |
| LAD | the acronym for “language acquisition device,” Chomsky’s term for an innate characteristic of the human mind that enables children to acquire language easily. |
| Poverty-of-stimulus argument | Chomsky’s idea that the language spoken to children is too poor a stimulus and reinforcement of correct grammar is too haphazard to support a satisfactory behavioral account of language acquisition. |
| Syntactic structures | Chomsky’s idea of innate, biological structures that contain the basic grammar rules of human language. |
| Jerome Seymour Bruner | the themes in Bruner’s work as a cognitive psychologist include the relationship between perception and conception, developmental aspects of cognitions, and applications of the study of cognition. |
| George Armitage Miller | psychologist who is particularly known for his famous “The Magical Number Seven Plus or Minus Two” paper, which established limits (7 ± 2) on the human capacity for processing information. |
| Short-term memory | another name for consciousness; refers to a brief memory stage having a capacity of 7 ± 2 chunks. |
| Chunks | a term referring to collected items of information in memory. |
| Donald Broadbent | an engineering psychologist who was one of the first to popularize the information processing metaphor. |
| Information processing | the term used to describe the application of cybernetic information and control theories to human behavior and mental events. |
| TOTE | the acronym for Test-Operate-Test-Exit unit, which is a hypothetical, hierarchical, feedback loop that has both cognitive and behavioral components and is assumed to occupy the same theoretical space as the reflex arc. |
| Roger Brown | a social and cognitive psychologist particularly known for his work in psycholinguistics. |
| Flashbulb memories | memories of first learning about a surprising or emotional experience. |
| Ulric Neisser | the cognitive scientist who has advanced the schema concept as the basis of cognitive psychology and used schema theory to provide a general account of human behavior and development. |
| Perceptual cycle | introduced by Neisser, the perceptual cycle suggests that our mental structures direct our behavior, and our experiences modify our mental representations in an unending cycle. |
| Ecological validity | a movement in behaviorism that stressed the importance of examining environmental conditions and fully understanding the nature of the stimuli in any environmental event. |
| Endel Tulving | a memory researcher who has distinguished between episodic and semantic long-term memory. |
| Episodic memory | a type of long-term memory introduce by Tulving that refers to memories for events, such as your first day at school or breakfast this morning. |
| Semantic memory | a type of long-term memory introduced by Tulving that is a memory of an isolated, emotionless, atemporal fact, such as your memory of the name of the capital of Louisiana. |
| Categorization | refers to how we assign objects and concepts to particular groups; William James called categorization the fundamental act of cognition. |
| Ludwig Wittgenstein | trained in mathematics and mechanical engineering, Wittgenstein’s discussion of “family resemblance” is considered the point of departure for modern cognitive psychology’s interest in categorization. |
| Family resemblance | Idea of family resemblance asserts that a category does not have to have a defining feature shared by all of its members. Instead, there can be a set of features distributed across the category members, with no one feature essential for inclusion. |
| Gilbert Ryle | a philosophical behaviorist whose discussion of the category mistake was the centerpiece of The Concept of Mind. |
| Category mistake | introduce by Ryle, this is the idea that errors sometimes occur when concepts are considered together although they actually require different levels of analysis. |
| Daniel Kahneman | known for his collaboration with Tversky on studies of human reasoning. |
| Amos Tversky | a cognitive psychologist who was known for his collaborative studies with Kahneman on human reasoning. |
| Representative heuristic | refers to a tendency for people to use the wrong sort of heuristic in solving problems because of a misunderstanding of such concepts as randomness, base rates, and sample sizes. |
| Availability heuristic | the tendency for people to base estimates of frequency or probability on information that is easy to remember instead of on the most relevant information. |
| Herbert Alexander Simon | winner of a Nobel Prize in economics, Simon blended psychology and computer models with his original focus areas of economics and management. |
| Allen Newell | with a Ph.D. in industrial administration, Newell worked with Simon on such things as human problem solving and artificial intelligence computing. |
| Artificial Intelligence (AI) | the construction of machines that model how humans think, learn, or perceive, and the development of machines that can perform some activities as well as a person. |
| General Problem Solver | a computer program developed by Newell and Simon designed to mimic how humans solve a number of diverse problems and logic puzzles. |
| Turing test | test for computer intelligence that asks whether the computer output is indistinguishable from what would be expected from a human. If it is indistinguishable, then the conclusion is that the machine is intelligent within that context. |
| Roger Schank | Schank worked with Robert Abelson to make Yale a center of AI research, through a consideration of scripts. |
| Robert Abelson | a social psychologist who worked with Roger Schank on the concept of scripts – an area of AI research. |
| Script | according to Abelson, a special type of schema involving a structured sequence of behavioral events. |
| David Rumelhart | Rumelhart has worked with his colleagues to resurrect a neglected computer architecture called variously connectionism, parallel processing, or neural networks. |
| Neural networks | a nonrule-based alternative to AI computing; also called parallel processing and connectionism. |
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