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PSY 2012
Exam 2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Pritchard Ashwood Model | Actions, Results, Evaluations, Outcomes, and Need Satisfaction |
| characteristics of goals that lead to increased performance. | Specific, Difficult/challenging, Attainable/realistic, Commitment Feedback |
| antecedents of accidents | Poor training, communication, design engineering, construction, regulation, and inadequate safety culture |
| 3 key goals of Human Factors | To reduce error, increase productivity, and enhance safety and comfort when the human interacts with a system. |
| Frederick Taylor’s Scientific Management | breaking work down into its smallest identifiable components to determine the one best way to perform each component and then compiled work into larger duties and, finally, jobs. |
| Hawthorne Studies | These studies advanced the understanding of jobs by including the interpersonal elements of the work context and concluded that that social context matters. |
| Developmental psychology | a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. |
| Jean Piaget specific conceptual abilities. | proposed that all children pass through four discrete, age-linked stages of cognitive development, each stage with its own conceptual abilities. |
| Lawrence Kohlberg | proposed a series of stages of moral development. |
| Erik Erikson | proposed a series of stages of psychosocial development. |
| Zygotes | the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo. |
| The placenta | transfers nutrients and oxygen from mother to fetus and also screens out many potentially harmful substances. |
| Embryo | the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month. |
| Fetus | the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth. |
| Teratogens | agents, such as chemicals and viruses that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm. |
| Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) | physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial disproportions. |
| Maturation | biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience. |
| Cognition | all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. |
| Schema | a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. |
| Assimilation | interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas. |
| Accommodation | adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information. |
| Sensorimotor stage | in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. |
| Object permanence | the awareness that tings continue to exist even when not perceived. |
| Preoperational stage | in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. |
| Conservation | the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects |
| Egocentrism | in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view. |
| Theory of mind | people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states |
| Concrete operational stage | in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. |
| Formal operational stage | in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts. |
| Autism | a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others’ states of mind. |
| Stranger anxiety | the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age. |
| Attachment | an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their |
| Critical period | an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development. |
| Imprinting | the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life. |
| Basic trust | according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers |
| Authoritarian | parents impose rules and expect obedience. “Because I said so!” |
| Permissive | parents submit to their children’s desires. Make few demands and little punishment. |
| Authoritative | parents are both demanding and responsive. They exert control by setting rules but also explain their reasons. |
| Lev Vygotsky emphasized how the child’s mind grows through interaction with the social environment. | |
| Adolescence | the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence. |
| Puberty | the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing. |
| Primary sex characteristics | the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible. |
| Secondary sex characteristics | nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair. |
| Menarche | the first menstrual period |
| Spermarche | the first ejaculation |
| Myelin | the fatty tissue that forms around axons and speeds neurotransmission, enables better communication with other brain regions. |
| Preconventional morality | before age 9, most children’s morality focuses on self-interest: they obey rules either to avoid punishment or to gain concrete rewards. |
| Conventional morality | by early adolescence, morality focuses on caring for others and on upholding laws and social rules, simply because they are the laws and rules. |
| Postconventional morality | with the abstract reasoning of formal operational thought, people may reach a third moral level. Actions are judged “right” because they flow from people’s rights or from self-defined, basic ethical principles. |
| Identity | our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles. |
| Social identity | the “we” aspect of our self concept that comes from our group memberships |
| Intimacy | in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships. |
| Emerging adulthood | for some people in modern cultures, a period from late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescence dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood. |
| Menopause | the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines |
| Crystallized intelligence | our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age. |
| Fluid intelligence | our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood. |
| Terminal decline | within the last three or four years of life, cognitive decline typically accelerates. |
| Social clock | the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement. |
| Flow | a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one’s skills. |
| Csikszentmihalyi | observed an overriding principle: It’s exhilarating to flow with an activity that fully engages our skills. |
| Industrial-organization (I/O) psychology | the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces. |
| Personnel psychology | a subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development. |
| Organization psychology | a subfield of I/O psychology that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change. |
| Human factors psychology | a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use. |
| Interviewer illusion | the self-proclaimed ability to correct read people and decide whether they are meant for the job. |
| Structured interviews | interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established scales. |
| Achievement motivation | a desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for rapidly attaining a high standard. |
| 10-year rule | that world-class experts in a field typically have invested “at least 10 years of hard work |
| Task leadership | goal-orientated leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals. |
| Social leadership | group-orientated leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support. |
| Voice effect | if given a chance to voice their opinion during a decision-making process, people will respond more positively to the decision. |
| Curse of knowledge | when you know a thing, it’s hard to mentally stimulate what it’s like not to know. |
| Memory | the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information |
| Encoding | the processing of information into the memory system |
| Storage | the retention of encoded information over time |
| Retrieval | the process of getting information out of memory storage |
| Sensory memory | the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. |
| Short-term memory | activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten. |
| Long-term memory | the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system that includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. |
| Working memory | a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. |
| Automatic processing | unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, frequency, and well-learned information. |
| Effortful processing | encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. |
| Rehearsal | the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage. |
| Spacing effect | the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. |
| Serial position effect | our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. |
| Imagery | mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with encoding. |
| Mnemonics | memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices |
| Chunking | organizing items into familiar, manageable units. |
| Iconic memory | a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second |
| Echoic memory | a momentary sensor memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds. |
| Long-term potentiation (LTP) | an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. |
| Flashbulb memory | a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. |
| Amnesia | the loss of memory. |
| Implicit memory | retention independent of conscious recollection. |
| Explicit memory | memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare” |
| Hippocampus | a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage. |
| Recall | a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier (fill-in-the-blank) |
| Recognition | a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned (multiple-choice) |
| Relearning | a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time |
| Priming | the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory |
| Déjà vu | that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. |
| Mood-congruent memory | the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood |
| Proactive interference | the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information |
| Retroactive interference | the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information |
| Positive transfer | knowing one thing may help in learning another |
| Repression | in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. |
| Misinformation effect | incorporating misleading information one one’s memory of an event |
| Source amnesia | attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. |
| Motivation | a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. |
| Instinct theory | focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors (now replaced by evolutionary perspective because it failed to explain human motives). |
| Drive-reduction theory | focuses on how our inner pushes and external pulls interact. |
| Arousal theory | focuses on finding the right level of stimulation. |
| Instinct | a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned. |
| Homeostasis | a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular. |
| Incentives | a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior. |
| Hierarchy of needs | Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active. |
Created by:
JacobGant
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