Help
Options
Didn't know it?
click below
click below
Knew it?
click below
click below
Don't Know
Remaining cards (0)
Know
retry
shuffle
restart
0:00
Embed Code - If you would like this activity on your web page, copy the script below and paste it into your web page.
Normal Size Small Size show me how
Normal Size Small Size show me how
AP Psych-Midterm
Chapters 1-5, 7-10
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| psychology | scientific study of behavior and mental processes |
| empirical approach | standard for all psychological research, study conducted with careful observation and scientifically based research |
| pseudopsychology | hand reading, fortune telling, etc. face practices being set forth as psychological research |
| confirmation bias | pay attention to events that confirm our beliefs and ignore those that don't |
| experimental psychologists | do research on basic processes |
| teachers of psychology | teach psychology |
| applied psychology | use knowledge developed by experimental psychologists and use it to solve human problems |
| psychology's history starts with | ancient greek philosophers. socrates questioned human behavior, taught Plato who went on quest for knowledge and understanding-quest for perfect knowledge. first to delve into areas of cognition |
| after plato came | aristotle who developed theories on perception, cognition, memory, problem solving, and thics |
| rene descartes | asserted that human sensation and behavior result of activity of the nervous system |
| wundt | first to establish psychological laboratory. came up with strucuturalism. |
| structuralism | basic components of human mind. was too simple to be accredited |
| introspection | technique of structuralism that used observation and description of senses to tell about mind |
| william james | father of psychology. came up with functionalism |
| functionalism | mind has mental processes which can be understood through their functions. was more practical than structuralism |
| gestalt | perceptual wholes, how our sensations form perceptual wholes. max weirtheimer |
| john watson and b.f. skinner | leader of behavioral movement |
| behaviorism | study of only the behavior and how the environment affects it. |
| psychoanalysis and freud | unconscious mind--the conflicts, desires, needs |
| perspectives of psychology | biological, evolutionary, cognitive, humanistic, social-cultural, trait, developmental, behavioral |
| biological perceptive | complec biological systems that repson to both hereditary and environmental influences. brain structures and processes-neuroscience. |
| evolutionary | behaviors developed and adapted over time. genetic makeup and ancestry |
| developmental | predictable patterns of change throughout lifetime. interaction between nature and nurture |
| cognitive | information-processing. mental interpretation and experiences. thoughts, expectations, memories, perceptions. cognitive neuroscience is connection between brain's structures and it's mental processes |
| psychodynamic | dark forces of unconscious mind. unconscious needs, conflicts, desires. repressed memories and childhood experiences |
| humanistic | hippy. human growth and potential. positive. influence of self-concept, perceptions, interpersonal relationships, and need for potential growth |
| behavioral | behaviors and learning. stimulus activated by environment as punishment or reward |
| socialcultural | people are social beings, influenced by culture, social norms and expectations, and social learnings |
| trait | individual characteristics make up our individual differences. unique combo of traits |
| scientific method | process of putting ideas to the test |
| scientific method process | hypothesis, controlled test, data, analyze, publish( criticize, replicate) |
| empirical investigation | collecting of objective info by making careful measurements based on direct experience |
| theory | set of testable explanation explanations |
| operational definitions | specific descriptions and explanations of concepts and conditions of experiment |
| IV and DV | IV: independent, the thing that changes and you control in test. DV: the thing being tested and affected by IV |
| random presentation | chance alone determines order of presentation |
| significant difference | are results true or just due to likely chance. results are true when probability that it might due to chance is less then .05 |
| population | the pool from which you choose people to test |
| sample | small group of population that researchers test on |
| representative sample | representative distribution of overall population |
| random sample | each person has equal chancee of being selected for experiment |
| stratified | sample which subgroups are represented proportionally |
| extraneous variable | a variable that experimenter cannot control but that can affect the results of the experiment. |
| participant variable | elated to how a variable may influence an individual's characteristics thereby changing how he/she feels. |
| situational | things in the environment that can influence indvidual's response to experiment |
| confounding variable | variable that directly affects independent variable. may be extraneous |
| ex post facto | subjects are chosen based on pre-existing conditions |
| correlational | relationship between two variables. does not define causation |
| coefficient of correlation | degree and relationship between variables. -1 to 1. negative means indirect and positive means direct and 0 means no relation |
| survey | question-answer based research method |
| naturalistic observation | subject studied in natural environment |
| longitudinal study | one type of subject followed and observed for an extended period of time. same group, more accurate, study developmental trends |
| cross-sectional | representative cross section of the population is tested or surveyed during a specific time. provide data for data with smaller group. not as accuarte |
| cohort sequential study | cross section of population, and each cohort is followed and observed for short period of time |
| personal bias | bias to individual's beliefs, preferences, assumptions, or prejudices |
| expectancy bias | observers expect and look for expected results in investigation |
| double blind study | both the participants and the experimenters are clueless about who has the independent variable |
| bias blind spot | think other people are susceptible to bias but they arent themselves |
| mental set | tendency to solve problems based on previous methods of past and similiar problems |
| congitive dissonance | when a person believes on thing but acts a different way |
| fairness bias | sense of fariness takes precedence over rational self-interest. shows how people may be ablee to cooperate |
| hindsight bias | "i knew it all along". tendency to overestimate one's ability to have predicted an event once the outcome is known |
| institutional review board | committee of an institution where research is conducted and reviewed for ethics and methodology |
| institutional animal care and use committee | same as IRB but for animals |
| deception | participants have right to know what is going to happen with them without compromising results of study |
| APA's Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Codes of Conduct | must be followed to ensure ethics |
| debrief | participants must be checked to make sure no long term illnesses happen |
| case history | obtains unique and personal information about individual |
| psychological test | standardized test that measure psychological qualities within individual |
| lab observation | observations on artifical environment set forth by experimenter |
| frequency distributions | shows how frequent each various score is in a set of data |
| histogram | bar graph that displayed frequence distribution |
| descriptive statistics | numbers that describe main characteristics od data: mean, median, mode |
| measures of central tendencies | mean, median, mode |
| mean | can be influenced by extreme results |
| median | separate upper half and lower half with middle score. not influenced by extreme results |
| mode | most occuring result |
| range | difference between highest and lowest values in frequence distribution |
| normal distrubtion | bell shaped curve describing spread of characteristics throughout population |
| binet simon approach | first intelligence test. scores were representatives of current performance not innate intelligence. helped identify the gifted, from the normal, from the mentally retarded. alfred binet and theodore simon |
| mental age | average age at which individual achieves a certain score |
| chronological age | number of years since indiviual's birth |
| stanford binet | american test of intellegence. |
| intelligence quotient (IQ) | MA/CA X 100. have to grade on curve because it makes adults look super smart and kids look mentally retarded |
| psychometrics | field of mental measurements |
| charles spearman | general intelligence. g factor, general intellgience underlying mental activity |
| cattell | broke intelligence into two factors crystallized and fluid intelligence. |
| crystallized | knowledge person has acquired and the ability to access that knowledge |
| fluid | ability to see complex relationships and solve problems |
| stern berg | triacrchic theory. the three intelligences |
| practical | ability to cope with people and events in environment. street smart |
| analystical intelligence | ability to analyze and solve problems |
| creative intelligence | ability to develop new ideas and relationships |
| gardner | multiple intelligences-linguistic, logical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal. |
| is intelligence considered the same all across the board to cultures | nope, different cultures have different views of intelllignece |
| biopsychology | studies the interaction of biology, behavior, and mental processes |
| neuroscience | focuses on the brain and its role in psychological processes |
| neuron | cell specialized to receive and transmit information to other cells in the body. |
| what are the three types of neurons | sensory, motor, and interneurons |
| sensory neuron are also called | afferent neurons |
| sensory neurons are | neurons that carry messages from sense receptors from the body to the central nervous system |
| motor neurons are also called | efferent neurons |
| motor neurons are | nerve cells that carry messages away from central nervous system toward the muscles and glands |
| dendrites | a branched fiber that extends outward from the the main cell body and carries information into the neurons |
| soma | part of a cell containing the nucleus which includes the chromosomes. the cell body |
| axon | an extended fiber conducts information from the soma to the terminal buttons information travels along the axon in the form of an electric charge |
| resting potential | the electrical charge of the axon in its inactive state |
| active potential | nerve impulse caused by a change in the electrical charge across the cell membrane of the axon. when the neuron fires. this charge travels down the axon and causes neurotransmitters to be released |
| synapse | the gap that serves as a communication link between neurons, synapses also occur between neurons and the muscles or glands they serve |
| terminal button | structures at the end of the axon, which contain neurotransmitters that carry the neuron's message into synapse |
| synaptic transmission | relaying of info across the synapse by means of chemical neurotransmitter |
| how do neurons work | the soma gets aroused by messages received by dendrites. soma creates own message and passes across axon to the terminal buttons which release vesicles filled with neurotransmitters that cross synapse and arrive at the receptor sites of the receiving cell |
| all or none principle | refers to the fact that the action potential in the axon occurs either full blown or not at all. neuron either fires or doesnt |
| interneurons | nerve cell that relays messages between nerve cells, particularly between those of the brain and spinal cord |
| what are inhibitory and excitatory messages | inhibitory tell the nerve cell to not fire, and excitatory messages tells the nerve cell to fire. the weight or amount of each determines whether or not the nerve cell fires |
| neurotransmitters | chemical messengers that relay neural messages across synapse |
| dopamine | controls voluntary movements, sensations of pleasure and reward. problems with may lead to schizophrenia and parkinson's disease |
| seotonin | regulates sleep, dreams, mood, pain, aggression, appetite, and sexual behavior. problems with lead to depression, OCD, and other anxiety disorders |
| norepinephrine | controls moods and arousal, problems with cause depression |
| acetylcholine | regulates memory, problems with results may lead to alzeheimer's |
| gaba | inhibitory neurotransmitter, regulates anxiety. problems with can lead to anxiety disorders |
| glutamate | top excitory neurotransmitter. learning and memory. problems can lead to brain damage |
| endorphins | all or nothing responses. fight or flight responses. pleasure, sensation, and control of pain. regulation of eating behaviors |
| plasticity | nervous system's ability to adapt or change as the result of experience. helps nervous system adapt to physical damage |
| glial cells form the mylein sheath which | a fatty insulation around the axon that protects the cell and speeds the conduction of the impulses along the axon. the thicker the sheath the faster the impulses |
| nervous system | entire network of neurons in the body, including the central and peripheral nervous system |
| central nervous system CNS | brain and the spinal cord. body's command central. spinal cord is connection between brain and the rest of the nervous system. contains interneurons |
| peripheral nervous system PNS | contains autonomic and somatic nervous systems. is the entire nervous system outside brain and spinal cord. contains the motor and sensory neurons. messages between brain and sense organs and muscles and everything else |
| somatic nervous system | division of PNS that carries sensory information to central nervous system and sends voluntary messages to body's skeletal muscles. VOLUNTARY, CONSCIOUS PROCESS muscle movement |
| autonomic nervous system | portion of PNS that sends communication between the central nervous system and internal organs and glands. INVOLUNTARY BY YOU, heartbeat, digestion |
| sympathetic division | part of the autonomic nervous system that alerts the body for stressful and emergency situations |
| parasympathetic division | part of autonomic system that monitors body's function to calm it down after arousal by sympathetic division. |
| what is the somatic nervous system divided into | sensory nervous system (afferent neurons) and motor nervous (efferent neurons) |
| endocrine system | hormone system. body's chemical messenger system. endocrine, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries, and testes |
| hormones | chemical messenger used by the endocrine system |
| agonist | drug or chemical that enhances or mimics the effects of neurotransmitters |
| antagonist | drug or other chemical that inhibits the effects of neurotransmitters |
| brain stem | most primitive of the brain's major 3 layers. includes medulla, pons, and reticular formation . sets brain's general alertness level and warning system |
| medulla | brain stem structure. controls breathing and heart rate. sensory and motor pathways connecting brain to body |
| pons | bran stem structure. regulates brain actibity during sleep and dreaming. |
| reticular formation | core of the brain stem. arouses the cortex to keep the brain alert and attentive to new stimulation |
| thalamus | brain stem structure. atop of it. relay station of messages between brain and brain stem and body |
| cerebellum | structure of the brain on top of brain stem. responsible for coordinated movement |
| limbic system | middle layer of brain, involved in emotion, memory. has hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus |
| hippocampus | limbic system structure. involved with memory |
| amygdala | limbic system structure. involved in emotions |
| hypothalamus | limbic system structure. manages body's internal state. |
| cerebral cortex | gray matter of brain. higher level thinking and complex thinking |
| three parts of the brain | brain stem, cerebrum, limbic system |
| frontal lobe | movement and thinking |
| motor cortex | voluntary movement |
| parietal lobe | touch sensation and perceiving spatial relationship |
| occipital lobw | back of the brain, contains visual cortex |
| visual cortex | visual processing |
| temporal loves | long term memory |
| cerebral dominance | the tendency of each part of the brain's hemisphere to control certain and different functions |
| right bbrain | negative emotions. simple commands. spatial and auditory and visual memories. |
| left brain | positive emotions. control of muscles and speech. spontaneous speaking and writing. understanding speech and writing |
| corpus callosum | band of nerve cells that connects the two cerebral hemispheres |
| sensation | process by which stimulation of a sensory receptor produces neural impulses that the brain interprets as sensory images. just neural impulse that create a sense nothing more. has to do with changing stimuli |
| perception | meaning and interpretation of sensation. |
| transduction | transformation of one form of energy into another. transformation fo stimulus information into nerve signals by the sense organs. |
| sensory adaptation | loss of responsiveness in receptors cells after stimulation has remained unchanged for a while. |
| absolute threshold | amount of stimulation necessary for a stimulus to be detected. |
| difference threshold | smallest amount by which a stimulus can be changed for the difference to be noted |
| just noticeable difference | same as difference threshold |
| weber's law | size of the JND is proportional to the intensity of the stimulus. if something is loud, it has to become extra loud for you to notice. if something is soft it has to become extra soft for you to notice. |
| signal detection theory | sensation is a judgement the sensory system makes about incoming stimulation |
| retina | thin light sensitive layer at the back of the eyeball. retina contains millions of photoreceptors and other nerve cells |
| photoreceptors | light sensitive cells in the retina that connvert light energy to neural impulses. |
| rods | photoreceptros that are especially sensitive to dime light but not color |
| cones | photoreceptros that are especially sensitive to color and not dim light |
| fovea | tiny area of sharpest vision in the retina |
| optic nerve | bundle of neurons that carries visual information from retina to the brain |
| blind spot | point where the optic nerve exits the eye and where tthere are no photoreceptors |
| what are the sensations of the vision | color, brightness, pattern,s motion, textures, |
| what is the most important sese | vision. |
| visual capture | refers to how vision takes over from the other senses and overrides all other (decider in chief) |
| color blindness | color deficiency. inability to distinguish between colors. confuse red and green or yellow and blue |
| nearsightedness myopia | can see object close but not objects far away. caused by enlongated eyeball or overly curved cornea. |
| farsightedness | can see distant but not close objects. to short eyeball or not sufficienntly curved |
| how does sound word | airborne sound waves are relayed to inner ear. the cochlea focuses on the bivrations on the basilar membrane. the basilar membrane does transduction. neural messages are sent to audotiory cortex |
| tympanic membrane | eardrum |
| cochlea | primary organ of hearing, coiled tube in the inner ear, where sound waves are transduced into nerve messages |
| basilar membrane | thins strip of tissue sensitive to vibration in the cochlea. transduction happens here |
| sensation of sound | pitch, loudness, tmibber |
| sensorineural deafness | nerve deafness. deficit in body's ability to transmit impulses from cochlea to the brain |
| vestibular senses | the sense of body's orientation with respect to gravity. vestibular sense is closely associated with the inner ear |
| kinesthetic sense | sense of body position and movement of body parts relative to each other |
| olfaction | sense of smell |
| pheromones | chemical signal released by organisms to communicate with other members of the same species |
| how does smell work | volatile substances. odors interact with receptor proteins inside protein and the stimulated nerve cells convey information to brain's olfactory bulb. does not go through thalamus |
| gustation | sense of taste. soluble substances |
| sensations of taste | sweet sour salty bitter |
| skin senses | sensory systems for processing touch, warmth, cold, texture, and pain |
| gate control theory | neural gate that in some circumstances block incoming pain signals. pain depends on relative amount of traffic in two different pathways which carry into from sensory organs to teh brain. fast fiberss send sensory information to brain. slow fibers lag |
| why is touch a priority sense | essential for growth |
| where does pain exist | in our brain |
| percept | meaningful product of perception, often an image that has been associated with concepts, memories of events, emotions, and motives |
| bottom up processing | when sensations happen first and the brain interprets them |
| top down processing | when there is cognitive image or sensation that the brain looks for |
| perceptual constancies | ability to recognize the same object as remaining constant under different conditions, |
| consciousness | awareness of outside world and one's own mental processes thoughts feelings and perception. subjective. private. every-changing. self-reflective. keeps brain from overloading |
| neural basis of consciousness | no single place where it resides. collection of largely separate but interactive infoprocessing model. by-product of the brain |
| preconscious | mental events outside of awareness that can be retrieved |
| unconscious | mental events kept out of the consciousness but that can affect behavior. |
| emotional uncnosciousness | emphasis that emotinoal and motivational processes operate unconsciously and influence behavior |
| altered states of consciousnes | sleep, hyponosis, drug abus, meditation |
| sleep | state of consciousness. no knowledge of being in it until we wake up. slow breathing and irregular brain waives |
| sleep is regulated by | process of falling asleep is by forebrain. rem is regulated by brain stem. limbic system are highly active druing rem |
| restoration model | sleep recharges our run down bodies and allows us to recover physical and menta fatigue |
| evolutionary model | sleep increases species chances of survival in relation to its environmental demands |
| stage 1 of sleep. | theta waves. images of hallucination (sensory experiences occur without sensory stimuli). have senation of floating or falling |
| stage 2 of sleep | spindles- rapid rhythmic brainwave activity. officially asleep. 20 minute duration. sleep talking can occur here |
| stage 3 and 4 | delta waves. deep sleep. children wet beds, adults sleep walk. 40-45 minutes. heart and breathing rate slow. |
| when stage 4 ends | the elctrical activity of the brain increases and the sleeper climbs back up through the stages in reverse order. 123432 then REM |
| rem sleep | nearly an hour after you fall asleep. 10 minutes intially then more and more throughout night |
| active sleep (REM) | heart rate rises, breathing rapid, every 30 seconds eyes move rapidly. motor cortex still active. brani stem blocks messages from body so essentially paralyzed. not easily awakened. |
| sleep cycles occur every | 90 minutes. you are in rem 20-25 percent of the night |
| insomnia | persistent problems in falling or staying asleep over an extended period of time |
| dreams | hallucinations of the mind. can occur in any stage but mostly in REM \. some fake while others confused with reality |
| nightmares | distrubing dreams that cause dreamer to wake up feeling anxious and or frigthtened |
| night terror | sleep disorder. mostly kids. screaming, thrashing around. doublying of heart and breahting. occurs in stage 4 |
| lucid dreams | when you realizes you are dreaming |
| recurring dreams | dreams that repeat themselsves with little variation in story or theme. unconsciuos conflict that needs to be resolved |
| prophetic dreams | seem to tell the future. dreaming mind pieces things together that we normally overlook to create a dream |
| freuds things to dreams | to guard sleep to fulfill wishes of the unconsious. |
| latent content | the actual unconscious desires disguised and hidden in dreams |
| manifest content | surgace story that dreamer report |
| dream work | latent turns to manifest |
| alfred adler | tools we use to solve our problems |
| activation synthesis theory | no meaning. by-product of rem neural activity.brain is bombarded with stuff and so makes sense of them in works of dreams |
| activation componenet | brain bombarded with neural activity |
| synthesis componenet | brain tries to make sense of bombarded stuff |
| hyponisis | an induced state of awareness, usually characterized by heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, and highly focuses attentino |
| meditation | a state of consciousness often indueced by focusing on a reptitive behavior, assuming certain body positinos, and minimizing external stimulation. |
| psychoactive drugs | chemicals that affect mental processes and behavior by their effects on the brain |
| agonistic drugs | increase activity of neurotransmitters |
| antagonistic drugs | decreases activity of neurotransmitters |
| biological factor that affect drugs | potnetial genetic role. influence sensitivity and tolerance to drugs |
| psychological factors that affect drugs | have difficulty adjusting to life's demands and so vulnerable to drug addictino |
| environmental factors that affect drugs | physical and social setting. behaviors of others |
| hallucinogens. | LSD and marijuana. distort perception and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory stimuli. generally psychological dependence unknown physical dependence |
| depressants | alcohol, heroin, barbiturates. calm neural activity and slow body functions. moderate to high physical and psychological dependence |
| stimulants | cocaine, nicotine, ecstacy. excite neural activity and arouse body functinos. high physical and psychological dependence |
| opiates | heroin, morphine. highly addictive. produce profound sense of wel being and have strong relieiving properties |
| physical dependence | body adjusts and comes to need the drug for everyday functioning |
| psychological dependence | desire to obtain or use a drug even with no physical dependence |
| tolerance | reduced effectiveness of a drug after repeated use |
| addiction | conditino in which a person continues to use a drug despites its adverse effects. |
| withdrawal | a pattern of uncomfortabl or painful physical symptoms and cravings due to decreased amount or eliminated drug |
| whats the practical use of hypnosis | pain reliever. |
| senations | brain niterprets sensory stimuli as vision, sound, taste, feel |
| perception | gives meaning to sensation |
| weber's law | higher the intensity of the stimuli the higher the just noticeable difference |
| signal detection theory | how we detect signal and make a judgement of the sensation |
| bottom up | stimulation first and then brain interprets and understands it |
| top down | brain has certain expectation, memories, and other cognitive factors linked to the sensation it is seeking |
| gestalt | much of perception is shaped by innate factors built in the brain. patterns fo whole |
| figure ground | figure is the part of the stimuli that demands attention while ground is the background |
| closure | tendency to fill in gaps in figures and see complete figures |
| law of simliarity | tend to group simliar objects together in perception |
| law of proximity | tend to group close objects together |
| law of continuity | we prefer connected and continuous figures |
| law of common fate | tend to group simliar objects that share common motion or destination ( a school of fish) |
| law of pragnanz | simplest organization requires least cognitive effort. we tend to see fully developed concepts |
| perceptual set | readiness to detect a particular stimulus in a given context as when a person who is afraid interprets an unfamiliar sound as a threat |
| how does the sleep cycle pattern go | stage 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM, 2, 3, 2, REM, 2, 3, 2, REM, 2, REM, awake |
| sleep apnea | a respiratory disorder in which the person intermittently stop breathing many times while asleep |
| memory | a system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information |
| how is memory related to a cognitive system | memory works closely with perceptual systems, it takes information from the senses and selectively converts it into meaningful patterns that can be stored and access later when needed |
| what is the process of memory referred to | the information processing model |
| information processing model | cognitive understanding of memory, emphasizing how info is changed when it is encoded, stored, and retrieved |
| encoding | select some stimulus from among a vast array of sensory information that assaults you. find some pattern with it and then tag it |
| storage | retention of encoded material over time |
| retrieval | properly encoded info, takes only a second to retrieve with good cues. retrieval doesn't always word, for example if memory wasn't encoded right or stored in the wrong section |
| process of memory | sensory, working, long-term |
| sensory memory | holds sensory information for split seconds to see if it is important enough to move it onto to working memory |
| working memory | takes information selectively from sensory memory and connects it with items already in long term storage. it is essentially work table that adds perception to material being consciously payed attention to |
| long term memory | final stage of processing, receives information from working memory and stores it |
| storage capacity of the stages types of memories | sensory- 12-16 items. working- 7+ chunks. long term- unlimited |
| duration of the three stages of memories | sensory- less than 1/2 second. working- 20-30 seconds. long term- unlimited |
| structures of the three stages of memories | sensory- different parts of the brain due to dependence on senses. working- central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial. long term- procedural and declarative. |
| biological basis for the three stages of memory | sensory-separate sensory pathways. working memory- hippocampus, frontal lobe, and temporal lobe. long term-cerebral cortex. |
| chunking | organization pieces of information into smaller number of meaningful units (or chunks). a process that frees up space in working memory |
| sensory register | a register holding different kind of sensory information |
| what senses do: iconic, echoic, tactile, olfactory, and gustatory sensory memory register? | iconic- visual. echoic- auditory. tactile- tough. olfactory- smell. gustatory- taste. |
| automatic processing | unconscious encoding |
| effortful processing | encoding that requires attention and consciou effort. |
| hierarchies | arrange concepts (mental representations of relating things) from more general to specific |
| maintenance rehearsal | working memory process in which information is merely repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory. |
| elaborative rehearsal | a working memory process in which information is actively reviewed and related to information already in long term memory |
| eeidetic imagery | an especially clear and persistent form of memory that is quite rare; sometimes known as a "photographic" memory |
| structural encoding | remembering physical structures of stimuli |
| acoustic (phonemic) encoding | remembering by emphasizing the sound of the stimuli |
| visual codes | remembering by emphasizing the visual imagery presented |
| semantic codes | remembering by emphasizing the meaning of the stimuli |
| levels of processing theory | the explanation for the fact that information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful items in long term memory will be remembered better |
| procedural memory | type of long term memory that stores memories of things are done |
| declarative memory | type of long term memory that is for information that we can describe-the facts we know or the experiences we remember |
| declarative memory has what other types of memory within it | semantic and episodic |
| semantic memory | memory that stores general knowledge and concepts |
| episodic memory | memory that stores personal events or "episodes" |
| anterograde amnesia | the inability to form memories of new information |
| retrograde amnesia | inability to remember information previously stored in memory |
| consolidation | process by which short term memories are changed to long term memories over a period of time |
| implicit memory | a memory that was deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness |
| explicity memory | memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled |
| retrieval cues | stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior |
| priming | a technique for cuing implicit memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory |
| recall | a retrieval method in which one must reproduce previously presented information |
| recognition | a retrieval method in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented |
| encoding specificity principle | the doctrine that memory is encoded and stored with specific cues related to the context in which it was formed. the more closely the retrieval cues match the form in which the information was encoded, the better it will be remembered |
| mood-congruent memory | a memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match (are congruent with) one's mood |
| Tip of the Tongue phenomenon | the inability to recall a word, while knowing that it is in memory. |
| transience | the impermanence of a long term memory. it is based on the idea that long term memories gradually fade in strength over time |
| forgetting curve | a graph plotting the amount of retention and forgetting over time for a certain batch of material. typical curve is steep at first, becoming flatter as time goes one |
| absent mindedness | forgetting caused by lapse in attention |
| blocking | forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved |
| blocking is caused by | interference |
| proactive interference | a cause of forgetting by which previously stored information prevents learning and remembering new information |
| retroactive interference | a cause of forgetting by which newly learned information prevents retrieval of previously stored material |
| what can cause interference | the greater the similarity between two sets of material to be learned the greater the interference between them (learning french and spanish. meaningless material is more vulnerable to interference than meaningful material. and emotional material. |
| serial position effect | a form of interference related to the sequence in which information is represented. generally items in the middle of the sequence are less well remembered than items presented first or last. |
| mnemonics | techniques for improving memory, especially by making connections between new material and information already in long term memory |
| innateness theory of language | children acquire language not merely by imitating but also by following an inborn program of steps to acquire the vocab and grammar of the language in their environment |
| language acquisition device | a biologically organized mental structure in the brain that facilitates the learning of language because it is innately programmed with some of the fundamental rules of grammar |
| babbling stage | early stage of language development, occurring between 3-4 months, when children make nonsensical unrelated sounds |
| One-word Stage | the stage where children mainly speak in one word |
| Two-word Stage | at approximately around the age of 2, children start speaking in two word sentences. |
| Syntax | the rules specify how words should be ordered in a sentence in order to give that sentence meaning |
| Semantics | branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning |
| Phoneme | smallest phonetic unit in a language that is capable of conveying a distinction in meaning |
| Telegraphic Speech | speech that sounds like a telegram, has words arranged in an order that makes sense and contains almost all nouns and verbs |
| Linguistic Determinism | the idea that language shapes cognition and thought. |
| Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis | a hypothesis that language determines our character and the way we think. we are shaped by the language around us and therefore so is our character |
| concepts | mental representations of categories of tiems or ideas, based on experience |
| schema | a knowledge cluster or general conceptual framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people, and situations in one's life |
| script | a cluster of knowledge about sequence of events and actions expected to occur in particular settings |
| algorithms | problem solving procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct outcome, if correctly applied |
| heuristics | cognitive strategies of rules of thumb used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks. do not guarantee a correct solution |
| mental set | the tendency to respond to anew problem in the manner used for previous problem |
| functional fixedness | the inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose; a form of mental set |
| hindisght bias | the tendency after learning about an event to second guess or believe that one could have predicted the event in advance |
| anchoring bias | a faulty heuristic caused by basing an estimate on completely unrelated quantity |
| representativeness bias | a faulty heuristic strategy based on the presumption that once people or events are categorized, they share all the features of other members in that category |
| convergent thinking | style of thought that attempts to consider all available information and arrive at the single best possible answer. |
| divergent thinking | thinking that moves away in diverging direction so as to involve a variety of aspects and which sometimes lead to new ideas and concepts |
| representative heuristics | a cognitive bias in which an individual categorizes a situation based on pattern of previous experiences or beliefs about the scenario |
| availability heuristics | how easily something that you’ve seen or heard can be accessed in your memory. the sooner you've seen/heard something the sooner you remember and use it |
| emotions | a four part process that involves physiological arousal, subjective feelings, cognitive interpretations, and behavioral expression, all of which interact. rather than occurring in linear sequence. help organisms deal with important events |
| display rules | the permissible ways of displaying emotions in a particular society |
| universal expression of emotions | facial language/expression are universal although culture decides when we express them |
| 7 universal facial expressions | anger, contempt, happiness, sadness, surprise, disgust, fear |
| lateralization of emotion | different influences of the two brain hemispheres on various emotions. left hemisphere apparently influences positive emotions and the right hemisphere influences negative emotions |
| physiological arousal type of response | neural, hormonal, visceral, and muscular changes |
| subjective feelings type of response | the private experience of one's internal affective state |
| cognitive interpretation type of response | attaching meaning to the emotional experience by drawing on memory and perceptual processes |
| social/behavioral reactions | expressing emotion through gestures, facial expressions, or other actions |
| james lang theory | emotion is a product of physiological response. stimulus produces a physical response that in turn produces an emotion |
| cannon-bard theory | emotion is part of the physiological response. they both occur at the same time |
| two factor theory (schachter-singer) | emotions result from an evaluation of the cognitive appraisal and physical arousal |
| cognitive appraisal | individual decide on an appropriate emotional response |
| opponent process theory | emotions have pairs. when one is triggered the other is surpressed |
| emotional intelligence | the ability to understand and control emotional response |
| motivation | all the processes involved in starting, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities |
| drive | biologically instigated motivation |
| motive | an internal mechanisms that selects and directs behavior. |
| uses for motivation | connects observable behavior to internal state (hunger = social pressure or drive), accounts for differences in behavior (intensity), explains perseverance despite adversity, relates bio to behavior |
| intrinsic motivation | desire to engage in an activity for its own sake. internal pleasure |
| extrinsic motivation | desire to engage in an activity to achieve and external consequence, a reward |
| conscious motivation | having the desire to engage in an activity and being aware of that desire |
| unconscious motivation | having a desire to engage in an activity but being consciously unaware of the desire. |
| drive reduction theory | helps us meet biological needs. motivates to take action in order to reduce the tension |
| arousal theory | seek optimum level of excitement and arousal |
| yerkes dodson law | performance increases with physiological or mental arousal but only to a point. when arousal becomes too high, performance decreases |
| incentive theory | rewards and punishments |
| cognitive dissonance | motivates us to have consistent thoughts and behaviors. when those do not meet, individuals experience unpleasant mental tensions. hypocrite |
| hierarchy of needs. maslow's theory | biological needs, safety needs, attachment and affiliation needs, esteem needs, and then self-actualization |
| approach-approach conflict | choosing between two good options |
| approach avoidance conflict | a conflict in which there are both appealing and negative aspects to the decision to be made |
| avoidance avoidance conflict | lesser of two evils |
| multiple approach-avoidance conflict | must choose between options that have both many attractive and negative aspects. |
| fixed action pattern | genetically based behaviors seen across a species that can be set off by a specific stimuli |
| need | biological imbalance that threatens survival |
| need for achievment | mental state that produces a psychological motive to excel or to reach some goal |
| set point | tendency of the body to maintain a certain level of body fat and body weight |
| sexual response cycle | four stage sequence of arousal, plateau, orgasm, and resolution in both men and women |
| Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis | The hypothesis that frustration leads to aggressive behavior. Frustration develops when an aggressor is unable to attain a goal |
| instinct theory | we do things based on instinctual urges |
| stress | a physical and mental response to a challenging or threatening situation |
| stressor | a stressful stimuli |
| general adaption syndrome | pattern of general physical responses that take essentially the same form in responding to any serious chronic stressor |
| alarm reaction | first stage of GAS which the body mobilizes its resources to cope with stressor |
| resistance | second stage of GAS during which the body adapts to and uses resources to cope with stressor |
| exhaustion | third stage of GAS during which body depletes its resources in responding to ongoing stressor |
| type a personality | intense, angry, competitive, or perfectionistic characteristics |
| type b personality | relaxed and unstressed |
| learned helplessness | pattern of failure to respond to noxious stimuli after and organism learns its responses are ineffective |
| developmental psychology | psychological specialty that studies how organisms change over time as the result of biological and environmental influences |
| nature-nurture | long-standing discussion over the relative importance of nature (heredity)and nurture (environment) in their influence on behavior and mental processes. genes vs. life experiences |
| john locke | said that children are born with a "blank slates" that their experiences would be written on |
| rousseau | everyone was hard-wired from birth to be who they are. had predispositions to be a certain way |
| continuity | perspective that development is gradual and continuous. gradual. |
| discontinuity | perspective that development proceeds in an uneven fashion. series of separate stages |
| developmental stages | periods of life initiated by significant transitions or changes in physical or psychological functioning |
| prenatal period | developmental period before birth |
| zygote | fertilized egg |
| embryo | name of the developing organisms during first 8 weeks after conception. |
| fetus | developing organism between the embryonic stage and birth |
| teratogens | substances from the environment, including viruses, drugs, and other chemicals, that can damage the developing organism during prenatal. |
| placenta | organ interface between the embryo or fetus and the mother, the placenta separates the bloodstreams, but it allows the exchange of nutrients and waste products |
| neonatal period | from birth to first month |
| what are newborns with | basic reflexes (unlearned responses to stimuli). withdraw limb to escape pain. will cry. rooting reflex (turn to face to nipple) and grasping reflex (closing hands). can recognize human voices and faces even though blind |
| infancy | time between the end of the neonatal period and the establishment of language |
| attachment | enduring social emotional relationship between a child and a parent or other regular caregiver |
| imprinting | a primitive form of learning in which some young animals follow and form an attachment to first moving object they see and hear |
| baby temperament | mood, activity level, and emotional stability |
| securely attached | have strong bond with their parent/guardian, generally healthy mentally and physically |
| slow to warm up | less cheery, irregular in sleep, and eating patterns, generally slow when adapting to change |
| easy baby | happy, regular in sleep and eating, adaptable and not readily upset |
| difficult baby | glum, resistant to change, and irritable |
| mary ainsworth and harry harlow | studied attachment in children |
| maturation | process by which the genetic program manifests itself over time |
| affect of parents and guardians | affect us most. genetics. teach us how to form proper relationships and forms strong attachments. shape attitudes, values, manners, faith, and politics. |
| authoritarian | impose rules and expect obedience |
| permissive | submit to their children's desires, make few demands and use little punishment |
| authoritative | both parents are demanding and responsive. more rules and enforce them and explain why they made the rules and often encourage open dialog, especially with their older children |
| schemas | are pliable mental molds into which we pour experiences |
| assimilation | mental process that modifies new information to fit it into existing schemas |
| accommodation | mental process the restructures existing schemes so that new information is better understood. |
| jean piaget | cognitive development |
| sensorimotor stage | first stage in piaget. birth to age 2 (infants). child relies heavily on senses and action. lack of object permanence until after 8 months |
| object permanence | awareness that object exists even after it can no longer be seen |
| mental representation | ability to form internal images of objects and events |
| preoperational stage | second stage of piaget. age 2-7. marked by well developed mental rep. and use of language. lack performance of mental operations and logical reasoning skills. kids have egocentrism and animistic thinking. lack conservation and irreversibility |
| egocentrism | self-centered inability to realize that there are other viewpoints that one's own |
| animistic thinking | inanimate objects are imagined to have life and mental processes |
| irreversibility | inability to think through a series of events or mental operations and then mentally reverse the steps |
| conservation | understanding that physical properties of an object of substance do not change hen appearences change but nothing is added or taken away |
| concrete operational stage | third stage of piaget, 7-11. logical thinking develops, gain conservation, can perform mental operations, and can grasp mathematical transformation. cannot grasp abstract thinking |
| mental operations | solving problems by manipulating images in one's mind |
| formal operational stage | final stage of piaget. 12 to adulthood. reasoning expands from simply oncrete thoughts to encompass abstract thinking. imagined realities and symbols. first stage that children display a strong potential for mature , moral reasoning |
| erikson | psychosocial development |
| psychosocial development | erikson. developmental stages refer to 8 major challnges that appear successively across the lifespan, which require an individual to rethink his or her goals and relationships with others |
| trust vs. mistrust | infants. basic need of survival will be provided and will develop sense of trust and security and will form good relationships. if not met then will develop sense of mistrust, anxiety and will fail to form meaningful relationships. |
| autonomy vs. self-doubt | toddlers. learn to do things on own. must know they are capable of handling themselves. otherwise will feel inadequate and insecure about themselves, low self-esteem and confidence. |
| initiative vs. fuilty | 3-6, pre-school. must be confident to learn to initiate and carry out plans. self-dependent. otherwise low self-esteem and confidence and etc. |
| competence vs. inferiority | elementary school. adequacy in basic social and intellectual skills,to gain pleasure and sense of self-pride. otherwise low self-esteem |
| identity vs. role confusion | teens/adolescence. must develop on identity and have comfortable sense of self, both unique and social accepted. otherwise will leave individual confused and sad. |
| intimacy vs. isolation | early adulthood. ability to for close and committed relationships. gain acceptance and be loved. otherwise will be sad and lonely |
| generativity vs. stagnation | middle aged folk. focus of concern beyond oneself to ant to contribute to world through family and work. otherwise feel lack of purpose in life. |
| integrity vs. despair | old people. coping with impending death and view successes and failure in life. must have satisfaction and wholesome view on life. otherwise feel futile and disappointed |
| adolescence | puberty to early adulthood |
| primary sex characteristics | sex organs and genitals |
| secondary sex characteristics | gender-related physical features that develop during puberty. breasts, facial hair, deep voices, wide hips, pubic hairs, etc. |
| adolescent egocentrism | heightened self-consciousness of teens. tend to believe that we are center of universe |
| imaginary audience | belief that others are interested in your life as you are |
| personal fable | sense of uniqueness and invincibility that all adolescents possess. big fish in small pond |
| gender roles | set of prescribed actions for either sex. differ from culture to culture. play huge role in how you develop cognitively and socially |
| gender identity | develop from gender roles |
| androgyny | characteristics of both sexes |
| rolling car experiment | rolling car proved babies ability to have object permanence and visual cliff proved baby's |
| kohlberg | moral development |
| preconventional morality | before age 9. based on self-interest. |
| kohlberg stage 1 | egocentric: punishment and obedience based. |
| kohlberg stage 2 | cost/benefit orientation: reciprocity. awards or mutual benefits. |
| conventional morality | adolescences caring about hers and upholding laws and sochial norms |
| kohlberg stage 3 | good child orientation. gain acceptance, avoid social disapproval, start thinking about others. |
| kohlberg stage 4. | law and order orientation. avoid penalties/jail. not everyone makes it this far |
| post conventional morality | affirms people's agreed upon rights and/or what one personally perceives as basic, ethical, principles |
| stage 5 kohlberg | social contract orientation. hardly anyone reaches here. promote welfare of one's society while helping yourself. win/win situation. what is moral may not be legal. |
| kohlberg stage 6 | theoretical stage. ethical principle orientation. morality is based on one's conscious. achieve justice; be consistent with one's principle. no mutual benefit for oneself. |
| carol gilligan | bashed kohlberg for not studying females. |
| james lang theory | emotion is a product of physiological response. stimulus produces a physical response that in turn produces an emotion |
| two factor theory | emotions result from an evaluation of the cognitive appraisal and physical arousal |
| approach approach | choosing between two good options |
| general adaptions syndrome | body's reaction to stress. alarm to resistance to exhaustion |
| visual cliff | baby crawls across pexiglass with "drop" underneath it. |
| personality | the psychological qualities that bring continuity to an individual's behavior in different situations and at different times |
| psychoanalysis | freud's system of treatment for mental disorders. the term is often used to refer to psychoanlytic theory as well |
| uncionscious | freudian theory, this is the psychic domain of which the individual is not aware but that is the storehouse of repressed impulses, drives, conflicts, unavailable to consciousness |
| lbido | the freudian concept of psychic energy that drives individuals to experience sensual pleasure |
| id | primitive unconscious portion of the personality that houses the most basic drives and stores repressed memories |
| superego | mind's storehouse of values, including moral attitudes learned from parents and from society, roughly the same as the common notion of the conscience |
| ego | the conscious, rational part of the personality, charged with keeping peace between thee superego and the id |
| what technique did freud utilize | free association or talking |
| psychosexual staages | successive, instinctive patterns of associating ppleasure with stimulation of specific bodily areas at different times of life. oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital |
| oral stage | 1st year. the challenge is to overcome dependency and desire is oral stimulation by sucking, eating, crying, babbling. |
| anal stage | 1-3 years. challenge is toilet training and self control. and the desires are anal stimulation by bladded and bowel function |
| phallic stage | 3-6 years. challenge resolving oedipus complex, involving erotic attraction to parent of opposite sex and hostiility to the parent of the same sex |
| latency stage | 6 years to puberty. challenge is to consciously learn modesty and shame while unconsciously still dealing with repressed oedipal complex. desire to repress sexual and aggressive desires, |
| genital stage | adulthood. desire to have mature sexual relationships. challenge is to displace energy into healthy activities and establish new relationship with parents |
| oedipus complex | according to freud, a largely unconsciou process whereby boys displace an erotic attraction toward mother to females of their own age and at the same time, identify with their fathers |
| identification | the mental process by which an individual tries to become like another person, especially the same sex parent |
| penis envy | according to freud, the female desires to have a penis--a condition that usually results in their attraction to males |
| fixation | occurs when psychosexual development is arrested at an immature stage |
| ego defense mechanisms | largely unconscious mental strategies employed to reduce the experience of conflict or anxiety |
| repression | an unconscious process that excludes unacceptable thoughts and feelings from awareness and memory |
| denial | avoid a difficult situation by simply denying that it exists. |
| rationalization | giving socially acceptable reasons for actions that are really based on motives that they believe to be unacceptable |
| reaction formation | people act in exact opposition to their true feelings. child with low self-esteem becomes a bully |
| displacement | shifting your reaction from the real source of your distress to a safer individual or object |
| regression | adopt immature, juvenile behaviors such as crying, hitting, throwing things, to deal with stress just like when they were younger |
| sublimation | making sexual or aggressive desires available in a way that are acceptable like for example joining a sports team |
| projection | attributing our own unconscious desires to other people or objects. in small children that often say it's not their own but another person's fault |
| projective tests | personality assessment instruments. based on freud's ego defense mechanism of projection |
| rorschach inkblot technique | a projective test requiring subjects to describe what they see in inkblots |
| thematic apperception test | a projective test requiring subjects to make up stories that explain ambiguous pictures |
| psychic determinism | freud's assumption that all our mental and behavioral responses are caused by unconscious traumas, desires, or conflicts |
| neo-freudians | refers to theoriests who broke with freud but whose theories retain psychodynamic aspect, especially a focus on motivation as the source of energy for the personality |
| carl jung | prodigee of freud who ventured off from freud because of the sex and believed in a spiritual aspect to personality |
| personal unconsciou | similar to that of freud's unconscious and id |
| collective unconscious | jung's addition to the unconscious, involving a reservoir for instinctive memories including archetypes which exist in all people |
| archetypes | ancient memory images in the collective unconscious. appear and reappear in art, literature, and folktales around the world. mother, father, shadow, trickster, old wise man |
| karen horney | emphasized social roles not unconscious sexual urges. women wanted the same rights and opportunity as men and were not envy of the penis (womb envy). healthy personality = social relationships + fulfillment of one's potential |
| basic anxiety | karen horney. sense of certainty and loneliness in a hostile world and can lead to maladjustment |
| neurotic needs | sign of neurosis in horney's theory. developed if there is failure in achieving social relationships or fulfillment of one's potential. is a way to deal with it all |
| alfred adler | believed people are motivated by a need to overcome feelings of inferiority |
| inferiority complex | a feeling of inferiority that is largely unconscious with its roots in childhood |
| compensation | making up for one's real or imagined deficiencies |
| all neu-freudians have one thing in common with freud | deal with unconscious |
| humanistic perspective on personality | personality is driven by need to adapt, learn, grow, and excel. mental disorders arise from unhealthy situations |
| abraham maslow | theory on selc-actualizing person and the hierarchy of needs |
| self actualizing personalities | healthy individuals who have met their basic needs and are free to be creative and fulfill their potentialities |
| carl rogers | person-centered perspective. people are basically good and have self-actualization tendencies. unless held back by environment. environment needs to let the individual be genuine, it needs to accept the individual, and provide empathy for the individual |
| fully functioning person | carl roger's term for a healthy self-actualizing individual who has a self-concept that is both positive and congruent with reality |
| trait perspective | characterstics, behaviors, conscious motives. type a-intense. type b-relaxed |
| gordon allport | 3 kinds oof individual traits, central--basis of personality. secondary--preference and attitudes, and sometimes cardinal-single trait that defines you |
| traits | stable personality characteristics that are presumed to exist within the individual and guide his or her thoughts and actions under various conditions |
| what's wrong with the trait perspective | too general, not changeable, only snapshot of personality |
| bandura | driven by expectations of how our actions might affect other people. collection of learned behaviors from observational learning |
| observational learning | the process of learning enw responses by watching other's behavior |
| locus of control | jullian rotter. individual's sense of where his or her life influences originate. people approach situations differently based on locus of control thus affected personality |
| internal locus | believing you control your destiny |
| external locus | believing outside factors control destiny |
| MMPI | personality test that gives scores on ten important clinical traits |
| what are the big five personality factors/dimensions | emotional stability. extraversion. openness. agreeableness. conscientiousness |
| temperament | basic and pervasive personality dispositions that are apparent in early childhood and that establish the tempo and mood of the individual's behavior |
| individualism vs collectivism | in euro-american culture the individual is stressed. pushed to establish unique identity and assume others are similiarly motivated. in asian-african culture collectivism and the family or unit is stressed. the individual is incomplete without its group |
Created by:
LittleD331
Popular Psychology sets