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Cog Psych Final!
Cog Psych FInal
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Reaction time | The time between presentation of a stimulus and person’s response to it. |
| Analytic introspection | A technique or procedure that was used by functionalists. It involved training participants to describe their experiences and thoughts when presented with stimuli. |
| Noam Chomsky’s and Skinner’s conflicting views on how language development occurs | Chomsky suggested that language development is driven by inborn programming. He criticized Skinner. Skinner suggested that language is learned as children imitate others and are reinforced when they do it correctly. |
| Donald Broadbent introduced the... | ...flow diagram to represent what is happening in the mind. |
| Ebbinghaus’ memory experiment | He memorized three-letter nonsense syllables. The studies were important because Ebbinghaus was the first to plot functions that describe the operation of the mind. |
| Cognitive map | A mental conception of the layout of a physical space, such as a room or building |
| Memory consolidation | The process during which information is strengthened into a strong memory that is resistant to interference. It is the transfer of information from short-term memory into long-term storage. |
| Fusiform face area (FFA) | Involved in identifying familiar faces. |
| Prosopagnosia | The inability to recognize familiar faces. |
| Neural circuits | Groups of interconnected neurons which can result in a neuron that responds best to a specific stimulus. |
| Broca’s area | Left frontal lobe. Damage to this area results in a person experiencing slow speech and labored speech |
| Wernicke’s area | Left temporal lobe. Damage to this area results in a person experiencing difficulty understanding speech and speaking understandably. |
| Changing the intensity of a stimulus presented to a receptor does not increase the strength of the action potential, however... | Increasing the intensity of the stimulus does increase the rate of firing. |
| Occipital lobe | Visual information is received. |
| Temporal lobe | Involved in hearing as well as the identification of objects. |
| Parietal lobe | Involved in receiving sensory information associated with touch, hot, cold and pain. |
| Frontal lobe | Involved in reasoning (decision-making), voluntary movement, impulse control, language (speech production) and attention. |
| Bottom-up processing | Begins with stimulation of the receptors. From a perspective of proof-reading, bottom-up processing will result in noticing perceptual details which will allow one to more readily notice typographical errors. |
| Top-down processing | Begins with a person’s prior knowledge and expectations. Those who tend to use top-down processing are more likely to miss typographical errors. They see what they meant to type, not what's actually there. |
| Beiderman’s recognition-by-components theory | We recognize objects by combining the three-dimensional components called geons. 36 geons. |
| View invariance | The idea that geons can be identified when viewed from many different angles |
| Componential recovery | The idea that if we can see an object’s geons, we are able to identify the object. |
| Palmer’s study | Provided kitchen scene prior to flashing pictures of objects on a screen. Objects that were most readily identified were objects that are related to a kitchen. Important cause it demonstrated the importance of having a context when perceiving objects |
| Gauthier (1999) | Greebles and the fact that the study led to the discovery that the fusiform face area (FFA) is not only involved in the identification of faces but is also involved in the identification of complex objects in general. |
| Law of simplicity | Every stimulus pattern is seen in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple as possible |
| Law of similarity | Similar things appear to be grouped together. |
| Law of familiarity | Patterns that are familiar or meaningful are likely to be grouped together. |
| Law of good continuation | Points that result in straight or curving lines are seen as belonging together, and the lines tend to be seen to follow the smoothest path. Objects that are overlapped by other objects are perceived as continuing behind the overlapping objects. |
| Difference between a algorithm and a heuristic | Heuristics provide a best-guess solution to a problem. An algorithm is a procedure that is guaranteed to solve a problem when followed correctly. |
| Selective attention | The focusing of attention on one specific location, object or message, while ignoring others. |
| Dichotic listening technique | It involves presenting a message to one ear (the attended message) while also presenting a message to other ear, which they are asked to ignore. Only able to detect physical characteristics of the message coming to the unattended ear. |
| Shadowing | Repeating out loud the message presented to the attended ear |
| Cocktail party effect | The phenomenon in which a person is selectively listening to one message among many yet hears his or her name or some other distinctive message that is not being attended. |
| Triesman’s attenuation theory | First stage, an attenuator analyzes the incoming message and also lets through the unattended message at a lower (attenuated) strength. Second message is noticed based on physical characteristics. If meaning is significant, it noticed strongly then. |
| Automatic processing | Processing that occurs automatically, without the person intending to do it, and that also uses few cognitive resources. Automatic processing is associated with easy or well-practiced tasks. |
| Divided attention | The ability to pay attention to, or carry out, two or more different tasks simultaneously. |
| Stroop effect | Instructed people to name the color of ink that a word was printed in and to ignore the word, which was the name of a color. |
| Strayer and Johnston’s (2001) study | They looked at whether driving while using a hand-held cell phone was more distracting than using a “hands--free” phone. It was found that both types of phone were equally distracting. |
| Three structural components of the modal model of memory. | Sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. |
| R. Conrad (1964)study | Participants were visually shown target letters flashed on a screen. Made mistakes based on sound. Encoding in short term memory is auditory |
| Working memory model | Concerned with the manipulation of information that occurs during complex cognition. Not included in the modal model. |
| Components of working memory | Articulatory loop, the visuospatial sketchpad and central executive. |
| It is easier to divide attention between two different tasks... | ...if they involve separate components of working memory. |
| Word-length effect | Memory for a list of words is better for short words than for a list of long words. long words fill up phonological loop. |
| Articulatory suppression | Eliminates the word length effect by filling up the phonological loop with a repeated word like "watermelon" |
| Which area of the brain is most involved in working memory? | Prefrontal cortex |
| Perseveration | Difficulty switching from one behavior to another. Damage in the prefrontal lobe |
| Murdoch’s “remembering a list” experiment and the serial position curve | People are better able to remember the items at the beginning of the list and at the end of the list than those items in the middle of the list. |
| Primacy effect | Due rehearsing the items at the beginning of the list more and, therefore, transferring them to long-term memory. |
| Recency effect | Due to those items at the end of the list still remaining in short-term memory. |
| How to increase primacy effect and eliminate recency effect | Increase rehearsal time;count out loud for 30 seconds after list |
| Implicit and explicit memory | Explicit memory is the conscious use of memory. Implicit memory is memory that occurs without conscious effort. |
| Types of implicit memory | Classical conditioning, priming, and procedural memory |
| Types of explicit memory | Semantic and episodic memories. |
| Retrograde amnesia | Loss of past memories |
| Anterograde amnesia | Unable to build future memories |
| Two types of retrieval | Recall: Remembering info without having it in the question (essay) Recognition: Recognize correct answer in question (multiple choice) |
| Priming | A change in response to a stimulus caused by the previous presentation of the same or similar stimulus. |
| Propaganda effect | People are more likely to rate statements they have read or heard before as being true, just because they have had prior exposure to the statement. |
| Two types of rehearsal | Maintenance rehearsal: repeating info over and over. Elaborative rehearsal: connecting info with something previously learned |
| levels of processing theory | Memory depends on how information is encoded (depth of processing). Semantic>Auditory>Visual processing |
| Encoding specificity principle | We encode information along with the context in which we learn it |
| State-dependent learning | Learning that is associated with a particular internal state such as a mood state. |
| Transfer-appropriate processing | Memory is enhanced if the type of task at encoding matches the type of task at retrieval. |
| Type of changes that occur in the process of long-term potentiation | Enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation of neurons that are activated during learning. Increase in amount of neurotransmitter released at the synapse, and changes in the structure of the presynaptic neuron and the post-synaptic neuron. |
| Consolidation | The process of transforming new memories from a fragile state to a more permanent state. It transfers information from short-term memory to long-term memory. |
| Flashbulb memories | Memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an emotionally charged event that remains vivid but may or may not be as accurate over time as people believe them to be. |
| Repeated recall technique | Studies accuracy of flashbulb memories. Testing memory immediately after an event and then retest them at various intervals of time after the event to see whether there are changes in their reports. |
| Schemas and scripts | A schema is a person’s knowledge about what is involved in a particular experience. A script is a type of schema. It is the knowledge of the sequence of actions that describe a particular activity. |
| Brewer and Treyen’s (1981) study | Participants reported what they recall seeing in an office, demonstrated the influence of schema’s in the participants’ reports of what they recalled. |
| Misinformation effect | The fact that misleading information presented after a person witnesses an event can change how they witness describes the event later. The misleading information is referred to as misleading post-event information of MPI. |
| Memory-trace replacement hypothesis | Explains the misinformation effect. The idea that misleading information impairs or replaces memories that were formed during the original experiencing of an event. |
| Source Monitoring | Explains the misinformation effect. The process by which people determine the origins of memories, knowledge, or beliefs (Example: remembering where you first heard or learned information). |
| Retroactive interference | Explains the misinformation effect. Occurs when new information or recent learning interferes with memory for something that happened in the past. |
| How categories can be useful and what they cannot do | Allow you to know general things about an item or object. Allows you to make inferences about things that belong to related categories. Helps understand confusing behavior. Catagories don't tell you everything about an item. |
| Definitional approach to categorization | We can decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether it fits the definition of the category. Works well for geometry but not much else. |
| Family resemblance approach | Things in a particular category resemble one another in a number of ways. |
| Prototype | An average representation of a category. |
| Typicality effect | The ability to judge highly prototypical objects more rapidly when using the sentence verification technique in comparison to objects that are low in prototypicality. |
| Exemplars | Actual members of a category that a person has encountered in the past. |
| Three levels of categories that Rosch has suggested | Superordinate level which is the broadest level. The basic level which is more specific than the superordinate level and the subordinate level which is the most specific. |
| Semantic network model | Categories are represented by nodes and that it predicts that the time it takes for a person to retrieve information about a concept is determined by the distance that must be traveled through the network. |
| Phoneme | The shortest segment of speech that, if changed, changes the meaning of a word. |
| Lexical decision task | It asks participants to identify whether a string of letters is a word. |
| Word frequency effect | The fact that reading time is faster for sentences containing high-frequency words than it is for reading low-frequency words. |
| Word superiority effect | The fact that words are perceived more rapidly than nonsense letter strings. |
| Syntax | The rules of combining words into sentences. |
| Insight | The sudden realization of a problem’s solution. |
| Functional fixedness | The tendency to use objects in only their most usual way. Occurs most often with common objects or objects with a very specific use. |
| Means-end analysis | a problem solving approach in which a person repeatedly determines the difference between The current state and the goal state, as well as finding a way to reduce that difference. |
| Analogical problem solving | Using one similar problem and solution to solve a different problem |
| Deductive reasoning | Involves sequences of statements called syllogisms. We make definite conclusions based on deductive reasoning |
| Inductive reasoning | Involves arriving at conclusions about what is probably true, based on evidence. We make probable conclusions based on inductive reasoning. Involves observational premesis. |
| Syllogism | Two statements called premises, followed by a third statement called the conclusion. |
| Categorical syllogisms | Two premises that begin with all, no, or some, followed by a conclusion. |
| Which two syllogism forms are valid | Affirming the antecedent and denying the concequent (modus ponus and modus tollens) |
| Key to solving the Wason four-card problem | The falsification principle |
| Conjunction rule | the probability of two events co-occurring is equal to or less than the probability of either event occurring alone. The Probability cannot be larger than either one of them alone. |
| Law of large numbers | The larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population. |
| Base rates | Statistical odds. Blind eye to culture or preconceptions. |
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