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Final Psy 230
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Tolerance | Decreased sensitivity to a drug as a consequence of exposure to it. Shift in the dose-response curve |
| What is Cross tolerance? | Exposure to one drug can produce tolerance to similar drugs |
| Withdrawal Symptoms | 1. Seen when drug use is terminated 2. Symptoms are the opposite of the drug’s effects 3. Body has made changes to compensate for drug’s presence – functions normally with the drug present 4. Severity varies with drug and pattern of use |
| Addiction: | Addiction can occur when rewards –especially nonnatural rewards--tap into this system and upset its parameters, producing |
| Physical Dependence: | -Indicated by occurrence of withdrawal symptoms-Seen when drug use is terminated-Symptoms are the opposite of the drug’s effects-Body has made changes to compensate for drug’s presence – functions normally with the drug present-Severity varies with drug |
| What plays a primary role in drug addiction? | Nucleus Accumbens (NA) |
| When a drug is injected what produces conditioned placed preferences? | The Nucleus Accumbens |
| What happens when Nucleus Accumbens (NA) is lesioned? | 1. There is no drug self-administration 2. NO drug-related place preference |
| Where does Dopamine (DA) neurons get projected to? | From the midbrain to areas in the telencephalon. |
| What causes an increase of dopamine in the Nucleus Accumbens (NA)? | Both self-administration of addictive drugs and natural reinforcers |
| What pathway is involved with “reward” from drug use? | Mesocorticolimbic pathway (AKA mesolimbic pathway). -This is where there is increased DA release. |
| What do DA(dopamine) antagonists interfere with? | Self-stimulation and reduce the reinforcing effects of food |
| How does Cocaine act as a DA antagonist? | By binding to DA transporters and blocking reuptake |
| When are cocaine addicts “high”? | Addicts only report a high when cocaine is effectively blocking DA reuptake, increasing extracellular dopamine |
| What is contingent drug tolerance? | Contingent tolerance only develops to drug effects that are experienced in conjunction with the contingent event |
| What is Conditioned drug tolerance? | Maximal tolerance effects are seen in the environment in which a drug is usually taken (e.g. smoking after the movies) |
| What is the Dose-Response Curve? | • Increasingly stronger doses of the drug produce increasingly larger effects until the max effect is reached. • HOWEVER, side effects can still keep going up!!! |
| What is Physical-Dependence Theory (of addiction)? | o Use continues, in order to avoid withdrawal |
| What are Positive-Incentive Theories (of addiction)? | • Use continues due to craving for drug effects • Supported by research |
| What are some causes of relapse? | • Stress • Drug use as a coping mechanism • Priming • A single exposure leads to a relapse • Environmental cues |
| Describe the dopamine theory of addiction. | - The level of dopamine receptors in the brain can influence whether a person likes or dislikes the effects of a drug. - Persons with lower numbers of dopamine receptors find it pleasurable. |
| Tobacco abuse side effects? | Smoker’s syndrome – chest pain, labored breathing, wheezing, coughing, increased susceptibility to respiratory infections Reduces life-span by an average of 9 years (longer for women) |
| Tobacco mechanism of action? | Inhalation Absorption through mucous membranes Nose, mouth, rectum |
| Tobacco major health hazards? | Susceptible to various lethal lung disorders – pneumonia, bronchitis, emphysema, lung cancer |
| Alcohol abuse side effects? | Severe withdrawal – 3 phases 5-6 hrs post-drinking: tremors, nausea, sweating, vomiting, etc. 15-30 hrs: convulsive activity 24-48 hrs: delirium tremens – may last 3-4 days Korsakoff’s syndrome, confabulation Cirrhosis |
| What does alcohol do to the brain? | 1. Reduces flow of Ca++ to neurons 2. Interferes with 2nd messenger systems 3. Disrupts CABA 4. Triggers apoptosis |
| Marijuana abuse side effects? | High doses impair short-term memory and interfere with tasks involving multiple steps |
| Marijuana mechanism of action? | Inhalation - Absorption through mucous membranes Nose, mouth, rectum |
| Marijuana abuse major health hazards? | Respiratory problems – cough, bronchitis, asthma Single large doses can trigger heart attacks in susceptible individuals |
| Cocaine abuse side effects? | Cocaine binges or sprees may lead to cocaine psychosis |
| Heroin abuse side effects? | Tolerance and physical dependence develop Desire to avoid withdrawal adds to motivation to use |
| Heroin abuse major health hazards? | Many health hazards related to use of needles |
| Heroin mechanism of action? | IV injection |
| What are Psychoactive drugs? | Drugs that influence subjective experience & behavior by acting on the nervous system |
| What is drug administration? | Route of administration influences the rate at which and the degree to which the drug reaches its site of action |
| What are the 2 pathways in the telencephalon? | Pathway 1: Nigrostriatal pathway 2. Mesocorticolimbic pathway |
| What does the Nigrostriatal Pathway consist of? | Substantia nigra > Dorsal striatum (largely motor control) |
| What does the Mesocorticolimbic pathway consist of? | Ventral tegmental area > cortical and limbic sites |
| How does the Mesocorticolimbic Pathway play a roll in drug abuse? | 1. Self-stimulation sites that do not contain DA neurons project here 2. Increase in DA release seen here in self-stimulation studies 3. DA agonists tend to increase self-stimulation and antagonists to decrease 4. Lesions here disrupt self-stimulation |
| What 2 neurotransmitters are influenced by drug abuse and addiction? | GABA and glutamate |
| What is the Broca’s area ? | For speech production |
| What happens when you damage Brocas areas? | Expressive aphasia Normal comprehension, speech is meaningful – but awkward |
| What is Wernicke’s area for? | Speech Comprehension |
| What happens when you damage Wernicke’s area? | Receptive aphasia Poor comprehension, speech sounds normal – but has no meaning – ‘word salad’ |
| What is Arcuate fasciculus? | Connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s |
| What happens when you damage Arcutate fasciculus? | Damage > conduction aphasia Comprehension and speech normal Unable to repeat |
| What is Left angular gyrus ? | posterior to Wernicke’s area |
| The left-hemipsphere is dominant for speech in? | Nearly all right-handers and majority of left-handers. |
| How can information from the right eye cross to the left hemisphere? | 1. Optic chaism 2. Corpus Callosum |
| What happens when you damage angular gyrus? | Damage > alexia (inability to read) and agraphia (inability to write) |
| What is Aphasia? | Deficit in language comprehension or production due to brain damage – usually on the left. |
| What is Apraxia? | Difficulty performing movements when asked to do so out of context – also a consequence of damage on the left |
| What are Aphasia and apraxia associated with? | Damage to left hemisphere |
| What does the left side of the brain control? | Language and voluntary movement. |
| How to determine which side of the hemisphere’s are dominant? | 1. Sodium Amytal Test 2. Dichotic listening 3. Functional brain imaging |
| What is Sodium Amytal test? | Anesthetize one hemisphere and check for language function |
| What is Dichotic listening test? | Report more digits heard by the dominant half |
| Dextrals | Right-handers |
| Sinestrals | Left-handers |
| What is corpus callosum? | The largest cerebral commissure Transfers learned information from one hemisphere to the other When cut, each hemisphere functions independently |
| Describe the methods used to study split-brain humans. | Present a picture to the right visual field (left brain) Left hemisphere can tell you what it was Right hand can show you, left hand can’t Present a picture to the left visual field (right brain)Subject will report that they do not know what i |
| Provide evidence that each hemisphere of a split-brain patient can function independently. | Each hemisphere of a split-brain can learn independently and simultaneously Presented with 2 different visual stimuli Helping-hand phenomenon – the hand that “knows” may correct the other |
| Examples of Lateralization of Function : Right hemisphere superiority | Spatial ability Emotion Musical ability Some memory tasks |
| Examples of Lateralization of Function: Left hemisphere: | Superior in controlling ipsilateral movement |
| Right hemisphere superiority: Spatial ability | Better at matching 3-D image with 2-D |
| Right hemisphere superiority: Emotion | Better at perceiving facial expressions and mood |
| Right hemisphere superiority: Musical ability | Better at perception of melodies |
| What are three anatomical asymmetries of the human brain? | 1. Planum temporale (Wernicke’s Area) 2. Heschl’s gyrus 3. Frontal operculum (Broca’s Area) |
| Function of Planum Temporale? | -.Wernicke’s Area - Temporal lobe, posterior lateral fissure - Language comprehension |
| Function of Heschl’s gyrus? | primary auditory cortex |
| Function of Frontal operculum | - (Broca’s Area) - Near face area of primary motor cortex - Language production |
| What is Analytic-synthetic theory? | 2 modes of thinking, analytic (left) and synthetic (right) Vague and essentially untestable “the darling of pop psychology” |
| Motor theory | Left controls fine movements – speech is just a category of movement Left damage may produce speech and motor deficits |
| Linguistic theory | Primary role of left is language |
| Whats the theories of cerebral asymmetry purpose? | That it’s better to have brain areas that do similar things be in the same hemisphere |
| Dyslexia | Reading difficulties not due to some other deficit |
| Developmental dyslexia | Apparent when learning to read (more common in boys) |
| Acquired dyslexia | Due to brain damage |
| What are two procedures for reading aloud? | • Lexical – using stored information about words • Phonetic – sounding out |
| Surface dyslexia | Lexical procedure lost, can’t recognize words |
| Deep dyslexia | Phonetic procedure lost, can’t sound out unfamiliar words. - Damage to the left-hemisphere language areas |
| In deep dyslexia if there is extensive damage to the left-hemisphere how is it that lexical abilities are spared? | Lexical abilities may be housed in left language areas that are spared Lexical abilities may be mediated by the right hemisphere Evidence for both exists |
| What kinds of crises elicit emotions? | Danger (present) elicits Fear Danger (potential) elicits Anxiety Resource competition elicits anger and aggression Stimuli important in perpetuating your DNA elicit affection, love, sexual interest, parental care, etc….as appropriate |
| What is– “principle of antithesis”? | Opposite messages are often signaled by opposite movements Threat displays, for example, are beneficial – intimidate victims without the costs and risks for fighting Submission displays, which in social species may resemble infant begging behavior |
| What is facial feedback hypothesis? | Smiling makes you happier; facial muscles influence emotional experience |
| What are microexpressions? | Brief facial expressions reveal true feelings; may break through false ones |
| What is Kluver-Bucy Syndrome a result of? | • Results from bilateral damage to anterior temporal lobes • Rare cerebral neurological disorder |
| What are the major symptoms of the Kluver-Bucy Syndrome? | • Urge to put objects into mouth • Memory loss • Extreme sexual behavior • Placidity • Visual distractibility • Reflects inability to identify biologically important stimuli • Pig and dog? Woman and Eiffel Tower |
| Evolutionary function of various behaviors and subjective effect: Defense? | Subjective effect: Reduction in fear Function: Reduction in danger |
| Evolutionary function of various behaviors and subjective effect: Sex? | Subjective effect: Orgasm/pleasure Function: Reproduction |
| Evolutionary function of various behaviors and subjective effect: Eating? | Subjective effect: Satiety/pleasure Function: Provision of energy |
| Evolutionary function of various behaviors and subjective effect: Aggression? | Subjective effect: Victory/pleasure Function: Resource control |
| What are the different types of aggressive and defensive behaviors? | 1. Defensive threat/attack 2. Play fighting 3. Predatory “aggression”: hunger |
| What are the functions of aggression? | Resource control |
| What are the three qualities of resources that make them worth fighting for? | 1.Valuable 2.Occur in substantial, sequesterable, units, e.g.Predators usually get food in large packets; prey is hard to get.Herbivores usually do not fight over individual food items, but territory often comes with rich food sources.3.Scarce |
| What are the benefits of Dominance relationships? | 1. Having priority of access to resources. 2. Provide a consistent priority of resource access for the dominants The social environment can foster tools for limiting interspecies aggression (think of the hippos, deer, lions, etc.). |
| Describe at least three strategies that have evolved to protect against lethality in social species. | 1. Be bigger 2. Measure strength rather than size 3. Develop and display weapons/physical features capable of being easily compared. (hippo) |
| Explain the meaning of “limbic.” | An emotional circuit system including the hypothalamus. Suggesting hypothalamus is needed for expression of aggression and cortex serves to inhibit and direct responses. |
| What is the function of the limbic system? | Focused on finding a ‘reverbrating circuit” in which an impulse could continue to travel in a self-perpetuating manner. To explain why emotions last a long time |
| What are some of the effects of stress on the immune system? | Ulcers are caused by a bacterium – stress appears to makes the body vulnerable to this bacteria. |
| What are some of the effects of stress on the Hippocampus? | • Dendrites of pyramidal cells are shorter and less branched • Adult neurogenesis of granule cells reduced |
| What can cronic stress do to the hippocampus? | SHRINK the hippocampus (HPC) Torture (Argentina) Sexual abuse (USA) Rat studies |
| What are some of the epigenetic effects of stress? | -Stress or mistreatment early in life may cause brain and endocrine abnormalities later in life. - When taken from mother rats they had a more maladptive stress response. |
| What does epigenetic mean? | - Not of the genes - Heritable traits (over rounds of cell division) that don’t involve changes to the underlying DNA sequence. |
| What is Psychoneuroimmunology? | Study of the interaction of psychological factors, nervous system, and immune system |
| What are Antigens? | Proteins that identify a cell as native or foreign |
| What are the Divisions of the mammalian immune system? | o Innate immune system o Adaptive immune system |
| What is Innate immune system? | • First line of defense • Attacks generic classes of pathogens |
| What is Adaptive immune system? | • Targets specific pathogens identified by their antigens • Has memory (the basis of effectiveness of vaccination) |
| What effect does acute stress have on body? | Improve immune function |
| What effect does chronic stressors have on the body? | Impair immune function |
| What the HPA axis does? | Suppresses immune responses Suppresses gonadal functioning (chronic) Produces memory problems, obesity, lowers sexual interest and gonadal functioning, and lowers the threshold for infections |
| Difference between Neuropsychological disorders and Psychiatric? | Neuropsychological disorders – brain problem Psychiatric – mind problem |
| What is Autism? | • three main symptom clusters o Deficit in reciprocal social interaction o Deficiences in communication o Ritualized, repetitive, or stereotyped behavior |
| What is schizophrenia? | • splitting of psychic functions” (NOT split personality) o Refers to the breakdown of integration of emotion, thought, and action o Positive or florid vs negative symptoms |
| Prevalence of schizophrenia? | Affects 1% of the population |
| Symptoms of Schizophrenia: | • Delusions • Hallucinations • Odd behavior • Incoherent thought • Inappropriate affect o Only 1 symptom needed for 8 months for diagnosis |
| Therapies (including drugs) used to treat: | • Chlorpromazine – calms many agitated schizophrenics and may activate emotional blunting • Reserpine – also found to be effective • Both drugs are not effective for 2-3 weeks and Parkinson-like motor effects are seen |
| What is the 33:33:33 rule in schizophrenia? | 33 improve by themselves; 33% with treatment, 33% don’t improve. |
| Prevalence of affective disorders: | ~6% suffer from unipolar affective disorder at some point, ~1% from bipolar: both tend to last a long time |
| Symptoms of affective disorders: | Stressful experiences Depression |
| Therapies (including drugs) used to treat affective disorders: | Behavior therapies frequently recommended, including self-treatment (e.g. to avoid stress) Drug treatments Last ditch treatment. Electroconvulsive shock therapy. |
| Prevalence of bipolar: | 5.7 million American adults per year: 2.6% (controversial) |
| Symptoms of Bipolar: | Alternating episodes of mania and depression; each may be short, or, last for months |
| Therapies (including drugs) used to treat bipolar? | Lithium |
| Prevalence of Tourette’s Syndrome: | Between 1 and 10 in 1000 (.1 to 1%) |
| Symptoms of Tourette’s Syndrome: | A disorder of tics, involuntary movements or vocalizations….generally very offensive vocalizations • eye blinking • coughing • throat clearing • sniffing • facial movements • Coprolalia (shocking language) |
| Therapies (including drugs) used to treat Tourette’s: | Sometimes treated with neuroleptics, or SSRIs |
| What are psychiatric disorders influenced by? | Experiential factors |
| What are the four classes of drugs that are used in the treatment of affective disorders? | 1. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) (phenylzine) 2. Tricyclic antidepressants (tofranil, elavil, etc.) 3. Selective monoamine reuptake inhibitors 4. Lithium – mood stabilizer |
| What are Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) (phenylzine): (four classes of drugs that are used in the treatment of affective disorder)? | 1. Prevent breakdown of monoamines 2. If taking MAOIs, should avoid foods high in tyramine – ‘cheese effect’ 3. Sudden rise in tyramine can cause high BP, even stroke |
| What are Tricyclic antidepressants (tofranil, elavil, etc.): (four classes of drugs that are used in the treatment of affective disorder)? | • Block reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine • Safer than MAOIs |
| What are Selective monoamine reuptake inhibitors: (four classes of drugs that are used in the treatment of affective disorder)? | SSRIs and SNRIs Prozac and its family |
| What is Lithium: (four classes of drugs that are used in the treatment of affective disorder)? | Mood stabilizer • Not a drug – treats bipolar |
| What are affective disorders? | 1. Depression 2. Unipolar 3. Mania 4. Bipolar Affective disorder |
| What is depression? | Normal reaction to loss, abnormal when it persists or has no cause |
| What is mania? | Opposite of depression (sort of) (anxiety, tho) |
| What is unipolar? | Depression only • Reactive – triggered by negative event • Endogenous – no apparent cause • Likely no such thing as “no cause” |
| What is Bipolar affective disorder? | Depression with periods of mania |
| What are the anxiety disorders? | 1. PD 2. Phobias 3. PTSD 4. OCD 5. GAD 6. Social Phobias |
| What is GAD? | 1. Worry 2. “rumination” 3. “vigilance and scanning” 4. “apprehensive expectation” about some hard to define event. |
| What is OCD? | Obsessions (thoughts) and compulsions (actions)..typically actions to control feelings of dread |
| What is PD? | - Sudden onset panic, with heart palpitations - Feeling of imminent death - Need to escape or flee (agoraphobia) |
| What is PTSD? | - After traumatizing event. - Range of symptoms including depersonalization - Anhedonia - Reliving of the traumatic experience in dreams or waking hallucinations |
| What are drugs used to treat anxiety disorders? | -Benzodiazepines (but abuse liability) (Librium, Valium) -SSRIs, serotonin agonists (Buspar) - recommendations for behavior therapy in addition to (or instead of) pharmacological treatment. |
| How are anxiety different from other disorders? | Behaviorally |
| What are endophenotypes? | A physiological or molecular deviation that is strongly associated with a psychiatric disorder. |
| Why are endophenotypes significant for biological psychology? | - Endophenotypes may also be useful when there are NO drugs that really help with a particular disorder - reflects a strong current emphasis on the search for mechanisms underlying psychiatric disorders. |
| What are the animal models used to model anxiety disorders and test the efficacy of anxiolytic drugs? | 1. Risk-assessment test 2. Elevated-plus-maze 3. Defensive-burying |
| What is the Elevated-plus-maze? | Animal models used to model anxiety disorders: Time in open arms indicates less anxiety |
| What is Defensive-burying? | Animal models used to model anxiety disorders: More time burying, more anxiety |
| What is the Risk-assessment test? | Animal models used to model anxiety disorders: Time freezing and assessing risk indicate anxiety level |
| Recent research suggests that dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens may be related more to the ____________________ of reward than to the experience of the reward. | Anticipation |
| Dementia, liver cirrhosis, and gastritis are often experienced by people addicted to ________________. | Alcohol |
| Individuals who suffer drug withdrawal symptoms when they stop taking a drug are said to be | A) PHYSICALLY DEPENDENT. B) psychologically dependent. C) addicted. D) both A and B E) both B and C |
| Taking one drug can often produce tolerance to other drugs; such tolerance is called ______________________. | Cross Tolerance |
| Split-brain patients are those who | A) HAVE BEEN COMMISSUROTOMIZED. B) have split personalities. C) are schizophrenic. D) have cerebral commissures. E) have only one hemisphere. |
| Broca's area is in the | A) left hemisphere. B) frontal lobe. C) inferior prefrontal cortex. D) ALL OF THE ABOVE E) both A and B |
| During a conventional postsurgery test, this split-brain patient was asked to reach under the ledge with her left hand and select the object that appeared on the screen. She selected the | A) spoon. B) APPLE. C) first the spoon and then the apple. D) first the apple and then the spoon. E) none of the above. |
| The dopaminergic brain nucleus that has been linked more than any other to the rewarding effects of addictive drugs is the nucleus _________________. | Accumbens |
| According to the Wernicke-Geschwind model, word salad results from damage to _______________. | Wernicke’s area |
| The Kluver-Bucy syndrome appears to result, to a large degree, from bilateral damage to the | A) hippocampus. B) hypothalamus. C) AMYGDALA. D) septum. E) cortex. |
| According to lecture, emotions most likely evolved because they contribute to resolving biologically important problems such as: | A) AVOIDING PREDATION B) intimidating conspecifics who are competing for resources C) attracting mates D) all of the above E) none of the above |
| Which species are more likely to develop physical weapons (horns, tusks, large teeth, etc.) that are easily comparable and may prevent injury between conspecifics? | A) Medium-large solitary animals living large open area like the African savanna. B) Small gregarious (group-living) animals living in a dense wooded forest. C) LARGE GREGARIOUS ANIMALS LIVING IN AN OPEN HABITAT LIKE THE AFRICAN SAVANNA D) Small animals |
| Which neurotransmitter is most implicated in schizophrenia? | A) DOPAMINE. B) Haloperidol. C) Serotonin. D) GABA. E) Glycine. |
| True or False: Depression tends to be twice as common in men compared to women. | A) True B) FALSE |
| . The cost of development, preclinical testing, and clinical trials –up to FDA approval - for a psychoactive drug is currently about $_________________________ . | 800 million to 1 billion dollars |
| Brain imaging studies have consistently revealed degeneration and shrinkage of the __________ in patients with sever anxiety disorders. | A) Amygdala. B) Cingulate cortex. C) Thalamus. D) Cortex. E) NONE OF THE ABOVE |
| “Endophenotype” is basically a new name for | A) etiology B) biomarker C) part of the prefrontal cortex D) IMMUNE RESPONSE MECHANISM E) childhood obesity. |
| What structure is known for being larger in the left hemisphere in about 65% of human brains? | The planum temporale |
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