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AP PSYCH
CH7 Cognition & language notes
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is Cognition? | The process whereby we acquire & use knowledge. |
| What are the main buliding blocks of thought? | Languages, Images, & concepts are the main building blocks of thought |
| What is Language? | A flexible system of communication that uses sounds, rules, gestures, or symbols to convey info. • It’s semantic(meaningful) • Allows us to conduct mental experiments(if…then) • Characterized by displacement • It’s productive |
| What is Displacement? | Allows me to think about something/someone that is not immediately present. Frees us from the here & now, so we can communicate over time/space to people who have never been to the place or had the experience we are describing. |
| What is being productive in language? | We can combine sounds to make new words, arrange those words into phrases, & string phrases into sentences, etc. |
| What are Phonemes? | the basic sound unit of a language that indicates changes in meaning. • 45 in English language, up to 85 in other languages • In English Z and S are phonemes. |
| What are morphemes? | the smallest meaningful units of speech, such as simple words, prefixes, & suffixes. • They can be applied to whole words(such as red, calm, or hot) • Or to parts of words to have meaning • Ed(past), pre(before), are morphemes |
| What do Phonemes and Morphemes have in common? | phonemes E, D, and N for ex can: =these morphemes END, DEN, and NED. Then combine morphemes PRE-EXIST-ING=preexisting which is a very complex morpheme. |
| What is Grammar? | The language rules that determine how sounds & words can be combined & used to communicate meaning within a language. Has two major components |
| What are the two major components? | Syntax & semantics |
| What is Syntax? | rules for arranging words into grammatical phrases & sentences. For ex: in English meaning of a sentence is determined by word order. • Sally hits the car means 1 thing, the car hits sally means another, and hit sally car is meaningless. |
| What are Semantics? | The criteria for assigning meaning to the morphemes in a language. (The content of a language). |
| Who is Noam Chomsky? | a cognitive scientist/linguist, on Syntax and Semantics created transformations. |
| What are Transformations? | To get an idea across: 1. Have a thought, 2 choose words and phrases that will express the idea, 3 produce the speech sounds that make up theses words & phrases. |
| What is Surface Structure in language? | words & phrases in a sentence |
| What is Deep Strucutre in Language? | the underlying meaning of a sentence. |
| What is an image/what do we use images for? | A nonverbal mental representation of a sensory experience. Visual, Auditory, & Olfactory(smell) are mental representations that can be very powerful. We use images to think and solve problems. |
| What is a concept? | mental category for classifying objects, people, or experience. |
| What is a prototype? | mental model containing the most typical features of a concept. |
| Who developed prototypes? | • Developed by Eleanor Rosch in 1973 • She said for ex: our concept of a bird doesn’t only consist of a list of key attributes(feathers, wings, two feet,) but of a prototype of a bird in our mind. |
| What is degree of category membership? | Also created by Rosch, when we encounter new animals/drawings of animals we compare them to these prototypes to determine whether they are for ex: mice & rats. We decide based on the facts at hand |
| What is the AD HOC Categories? | novel concepts created for a special purpose/occasion or when we needed them( if you lost a parent?, we make them up as we need them, surprisingly people tend to agree on this |
| What is Top Down Processing(communication) | when I want to communicate, start with the thought, then choose words and phrases. |
| What is Bottom Down processing(communication)? | is the idea that perceptual stimuli are pieced together into what is perceived, based solely on the data available through the senses. |
| What is Linguistic Determination? | The idea that patterns of thinking are determined by the specific language one speaks, our language determines our thoughts. |
| Who is Benjamin Whorf? | American Linguist, spokes person for linguistic determination. He noted that the Hopi( a native American tribe of the Southwestern U.S.) have only two nouns for everything that flies. |
| What did the Hopi think? | One noun refers to birds, the other for everything else, such as kites, planes, & dragonflies. The Hopi would interpret all flying things of either of these two nouns something in the air would be either a bird or a non bird. |
| What is Anthropocentrism? | The equally human tendency to view our own species as unique, overlooking our own evolutionary heritage as well as abilities in other species. |
| What are Apes? | Humans share 97-99% of our genes with them. Apes are human closest kin. Apes have demonstrated problem-solving skills. |
| What are Signs? | Stereotyped communications about an animal’s current state. |
| What is telegraphic speech? | An early speech stage of one & two year olds that omits words that are not essential to the meaning of a phrase. |
| What is a problem representation? | The first step in solving a problem ;is defining the problem. |
| In problem representation what is some more info? | Ex: if a business is lose $, solve it need profits;cut costs, more income, or both. Once I’ve ID the problem,next step find solution & evaluate progress toward goal. Solution strategy ex: simple trial & error, info retrivel,algorithms,Heuristics. |
| What is trial & error? | works best w/limited choices, wastes time due to so many different options to test. It’s better to eliminate unproductive approaches & to zero in on an approach that will work. |
| What is Information Retrieval? | Approach is to retrieve info from LTM to see how a problem was solved in the past. An important option when a solution is needed quickly. Ex: pilots memorize the slowest speeds a plane can fly before it stalls. |
| What is an Algorithm? | step by step of solving that guarantees a correct solution. Ex: C=5/9(F-32) |
| What are Heuristics? | rules of thumb that help in simplifying & solving problems, although they don’t guarantee a correct solution. |
| What is an example of Heuristics? | Ex of a simple problem solving Heuristic: is hill climbing. Or in a budget, each reduction in expenses brings you closer to the goal & leaves you with a smaller deficit. |
| What is another example of a Heuristic? | Another ex: is to create subgoals. We break the problem into smaller manageable pieces, which is easier to solve than the problem as a whole. This tactic(subgoals) allows me to set my sights on closer more manageable objectives. |
| What is some more info related to Heuristics? | • Part of problem solving, is to decide which heuristic is most appropriate for a given problem. |
| What is Means-End Analysis(MEA)? | one of the most frequently used heuristics, aims to reduce the discrepancy between the current situation & the desired goal at a number of intermediate points. It takes into account the entire problem solution. |
| What is an example of Means-End Analysis? | Ex: a pitcher will walk a very good batter, even though it moves away from the subgoal of keeping runners off base, might enable pitcher to keep a run from scoring & will hopefully contribute to ultimate goal this flexibility in thinkin benefit MEA. |
| What is more info related to Means-End Analysis? | MEA does poses a danger of straying so far from the end goal, that the goal disappears altogether. To avoid this, is to use working backward. |
| What is working backward? | A heuristic strategy in which one works backward from the desired goal to the given conditions. |
| What is an ex of Working Backward? | Ex: I want spend $100 , it would be hard to get that goal just by buying some items & hoping they = $100. A better strategy be to buy 1 item, - its cost de $100 determine how much $ I have left, then buy another one, - its $, & so on until I spent $100. |
| What is more info related to Working Backward? | Search for a solution begins at the goal & works backward toward the “goals”. Often used when the goal has more info than the givens & when the operations involved can work in two directions. |
| What is a mental set/info about it | The tendency to perceive & approach problems in certain ways. • It’s a factor that can help or hinder problem solving. • Can be helpful if we have learned operations that we can apply to the present situation. |
| More info related to mental sets | The most successful problem solvers have many different sets to choose from & can judge when to change sets and when to abandon them entirely. Great ideas & inventions come out of such flexibility. |
| What is functional fixedness? | A type of set that can hinder problem solving. • Part of the learning process, is to assign correct functions to objects this is how we form concepts • But we need to be open to seeing that an object can be used for an entirely different function. |
| What is Brainstorming? | A problem-solving strategy in which an individual or a group produces numerous ideas & evaluates them only after all ideas have been collected. |
| What is some info related to brainstorming? | Problem solving requires thinking up original ideas, deliberate strategies don’t always help. Solutions to many problems rely on insight(understanding, flash “out of the blue”) You can’t sit back & wait for a flash of insight to solve a problem. |
| What is some more info related to brainstorming? | When I need a quick solution, I can do things that encourage creative answers. Sometimes we get so caught up in a problem for a while, I can return to it from a new angle. Then I can redefine the problem, circumventing an unproductive mind-set |
| More info related to brainstorming | Be open to potential solutions that at first seem unproductive. People become more productive when exposed to creative peers/teachers. |
| What is compensatory mode? | A rational decision-making model in which choices are systematically evaluated on various criteria. |
| Info related to Compensatory mode | • In many instances we don’t have all of the relevant info, it’s impossible to measure the pros & cons; the decisions are equally attractive/un, & the consequences of one or another decision are a matter of probabilities, not certainties. |
| more info related to compensatory mode | • Many if not most everyday decisions involve a high degree of ambiguity(uncertainty) • We must rely on heuristics |
| What are Representativeness? | A heuristic, where I make a decision on the basis of certain information that matches our model of the typical member of a category. |
| info related to representativeness | • For ex: if I went shopping & bought the least expensive items, & if all of these items turned out to be poorly made, I might eventually decide not to buy anything that comes from the category “very cheap”. |
| what is availability? | A common heuristic, by which a judgment or decision is based on info that is most easily retrieved from memory, even if this info isn’t accurate. |
| Ex of availability | • Ex: subway effect, multiple trains, one after another come along but are going the opposite direction from the direction I want to go |
| info related to availability | I will end up leaving the scene, so I never get to see the opposite situation ( once a train comes along that IS going the direction that I want to go in) |
| more info related to availability | As a result, we tend to assume that those situations seldom or never occur & make our decisions accordingly. |
| What is confirmation bias? | The tendency to notice & remember evidence that supports our beliefs, & to ignore evidence that contradicts them. |
| ex related to confirmation bias | people who believe that AIDS is something that hapens to “other people” homosexual men, IV drug users, not middle class heterosexuals) are more likely to remember articles about rates of HIV info in these groups(“other people”) or in 3rd world countries. |
| info related to confirmation bias | • Convinced that HIV is not something that they(heterosexuals) personally need to worry about, they(heterosexuals) ignore evidence to the contrary( that AIDS or HIV could happen to them) |
| connections or Patterns of Cause & Effect where none exist, Ex | historians reported that President William Henry Harrison caught a fatal case of pneumonia on the day of his inaugural speech bc he delivered it in freezing rain, when in FACT a virus not exposure to inclement weather causes pneumonia. |
| more on decisions | For the most part people are satisfied with real world decisions. • This is bc decisions can be revised if an initial choice doesn’t work out as expected. • Many real world decisions don’t have to be ideal, as long as the results are acceptable. |
| More info related to decisions | • Some decisions have serious consequences, & they must be made quickly without all the facts. |
| ex related to decisions | • Ex: a financial investment that returns a 15% profit in one year is still an excellent investment, even if another investment returned 20%. |
| What is framing? | The perspective or phrasing of info that’s used to make a decision. Studies show that subtle changes in the way info is presented can dramatically affect the final decision |
| an example of framing | in the medical field, two different procedures are introduced for lung cancer. The type of statistics, and the way they are presented can change a person’s opinion for a treatment option. |
| What is Hindsight bias? | The tendency to view outcomes as inevitable & predictable after we know the outcome, and to believe that we could have predicted what happened or perhaps that we did. |
| Example of hindsight bias | • Ex: Some Dr’s remember feeling more confident about their diagnoses when they learned they were correct than at the time of the actual diagnoses. |
| another example of hindsight bias | Another ex: an investor buys a stock on a hunch; if it goes up she’s convinced that she “knew all along”, if it goes down, she’s equally convinced that is was a mistake. |
| info related to hindsight bias | • Psychologists have long viewed HB as a cognitive flaw a self serving mechanism, conscious/unconscious, that restores our faith in our own judgment. |
| more info related to hindsight bias | • At times everyone imagines alternatives to reality & mentally play out the consequences. |
| What is Counterfactual thinking? | Thinking about alternative realities & things that never happened. |
| info related to counterfactual thinking | • They are counter to the facts • Often takes on the form of “if only” constructions, in which we mentally revise the events or actions that led to a particular outcome. • Typically deal with causes/consequences |
| more info related to counterfactual thinking | Research shows that Counterfactual thinking centers around a small number of themes; reversing a course of events that led to a negative experience, explaining abnormal events by assigning it to someone/something, & regaining a sense of personal control |
| even more info related to counterfactual thinking | Accidents are unpredictable, yet people feel comfortable w/the idea that there was a reason for the accident, that it didn’t just happen, even if this means blaming ourselves |
| example related to counterfactual thinking | suppose I take the scenic route home, not my usual route, & I have a car accident. A common response is the thought “if only I had taken my usual route, this wouldn’t have happened. |
| what is step 1 in problem representation? | define the problem, what am I actually trying to do here? |
| What is conceptual block? step 1 | unable to think about the problem in a different way. Learning set sometimes leads to this. |
| What is convergent thinking?step 1 | Works toward one correct answer. |
| What is divergent thinking?step 1 | Generates many possible answers, ex: brainstorming |
| What is categorizing problems?step 1 | place with similar problems |
| Step2: Producing(a step) & evaluating solutions (problem solving) | trial and error, and info retrieval |
| What is trial and error? | try and fail, try a different solution if I fail Works best when only limited solutions are available Most of the time this not an effective strategy |
| info retrieval | Recall from LTM, gives an immediate answer |
| Algorithms: | Guarantees a solution if used appropriately Used for complex problems |
| Heuristics: | Helps simplify problems-doesn’t guarantee a solution |
| hill climbing: | move closer & closer to the final answer without ever going backwards |
| tactic of elimination: | eliminate possibilities prior to solving. Ex: eliminating wrong answers on a multiple choice test before determining which one is correct |
| subgoals: | break the problem down into smaller, more manageable pieces. |
| Means End Analysis: | combo of hill climbing & goals Once I reach a subgoal, find best strategy for coming closer to the end goal. Can go “backwards”Ex: due to construction on Interstate 75 in Atlanta, get off expressway,go north for 4 miles to catch an alternative route. |
| Many compensatory models are algorithms | • Choices are systematically evaluated on various criteria • Weigh the pros and cons(numerically) according to importance • Advantage: allows you to evaluate large numbers of choices on a lot of criteria |
| Non compensatory models (heuristics) a less precise system of decision making | • Elimination of aspects tactic: throw out an option if it doesn’t meet 1 or 2 of our requirements |
| Faulty Heuristics: | • Availability heuristic: decision is based on info that is most easily derived from memory |
| Faulty Heuristic: | • Confirmation bias: • If only 1/100 match the stereo type we will believe it |
| Faulty heuristic: | • Overconfidence ( decision making): tendency to overestimate the accuracy of knowledge & judgments Ex: 100% right we are 15% wrong |
| Framing: | The impact of the way we present info |
| Framing: | Belief bias: the tendency for our beliefs to distort logical reasoning |
| Framing: | • Syllogism : A three-part deductive argument, beginning with a universal truth, followed by a particular fact, from which follows a logical conclusion. For ex: all dogs have 4 legs, tables have 4 legs, therefore all dogs are tables |
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