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Psych Part 3

AP Psych Chapters 7 and 8

QuestionAnswer
memory a system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information
how is memory related to a cognitive system memory works closely with perceptual systems, it takes information from the senses and selectively converts it into meaningful patterns that can be stored and access later when needed
what is the process of memory referred to the information processing model
information processing model cognitive understanding of memory, emphasizing how info is changed when it is encoded, stored, and retrieved
encoding select some stimulus from among a vast array of sensory information that assaults you. find some pattern with it and then tag it
storage retention of encoded material over time
retrieval properly encoded info, takes only a second to retrieve with good cues. retrieval doesn't always word, for example if memory wasn't encoded right or stored in the wrong section
process of memory sensory, working, long-term
sensory memory holds sensory information for split seconds to see if it is important enough to move it onto to working memory
working memory takes information selectively from sensory memory and connects it with items already in long term storage. it is essentially work table that adds perception to material being consciously payed attention to
long term memory final stage of processing, receives information from working memory and stores it
storage capacity of the stages types of memories sensory- 12-16 items. working- 7+ chunks. long term- unlimited
duration of the three stages of memories sensory- less than 1/2 second. working- 20-30 seconds. long term- unlimited
structures of the three stages of memories sensory- different parts of the brain due to dependence on senses. working- central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial. long term- procedural and declarative.
biological basis for the three stages of memory sensory-separate sensory pathways. working memory- hippocampus, frontal lobe, and temporal lobe. long term-cerebral cortex.
chunking organization pieces of information into smaller number of meaningful units (or chunks). a process that frees up space in working memory
sensory register a register holding different kind of sensory information
what senses do: iconic, echoic, tactile, olfactory, and gustatory sensory memory register? iconic- visual. echoic- auditory. tactile- tough. olfactory- smell. gustatory- taste.
automatic processing unconscious encoding
effortful processing encoding that requires attention and consciou effort.
hierarchies arrange concepts (mental representations of relating things) from more general to specific
maintenance rehearsal working memory process in which information is merely repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory.
elaborative rehearsal a working memory process in which information is actively reviewed and related to information already in long term memory
eeidetic imagery an especially clear and persistent form of memory that is quite rare; sometimes known as a "photographic" memory
structural encoding remembering physical structures of stimuli
acoustic (phonemic) encoding remembering by emphasizing the sound of the stimuli
visual codes remembering by emphasizing the visual imagery presented
semantic codes remembering by emphasizing the meaning of the stimuli
levels of processing theory the explanation for the fact that information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful items in long term memory will be remembered better
procedural memory type of long term memory that stores memories of things are done
declarative memory type of long term memory that is for information that we can describe-the facts we know or the experiences we remember
declarative memory has what other types of memory within it semantic and episodic
semantic memory memory that stores general knowledge and concepts
episodic memory memory that stores personal events or "episodes"
anterograde amnesia the inability to form memories of new information
retrograde amnesia inability to remember information previously stored in memory
consolidation process by which short term memories are changed to long term memories over a period of time
implicit memory a memory that was deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness
explicity memory memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled
retrieval cues stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior
priming a technique for cuing implicit memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory
recall a retrieval method in which one must reproduce previously presented information
recognition a retrieval method in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented
encoding specificity principle the doctrine that memory is encoded and stored with specific cues related to the context in which it was formed. the more closely the retrieval cues match the form in which the information was encoded, the better it will be remembered
mood-congruent memory a memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match (are congruent with) one's mood
Tip of the Tongue phenomenon the inability to recall a word, while knowing that it is in memory.
transience the impermanence of a long term memory. it is based on the idea that long term memories gradually fade in strength over time
forgetting curve a graph plotting the amount of retention and forgetting over time for a certain batch of material. typical curve is steep at first, becoming flatter as time goes one
absent mindedness forgetting caused by lapse in attention
blocking forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved
blocking is caused by interference
proactive interference a cause of forgetting by which previously stored information prevents learning and remembering new information
retroactive interference a cause of forgetting by which newly learned information prevents retrieval of previously stored material
what can cause interference the greater the similarity between two sets of material to be learned the greater the interference between them (learning french and spanish. meaningless material is more vulnerable to interference than meaningful material. and emotional material.
serial position effect a form of interference related to the sequence in which information is represented. generally items in the middle of the sequence are less well remembered than items presented first or last.
mnemonics techniques for improving memory, especially by making connections between new material and information already in long term memory
innateness theory of language children acquire language not merely by imitating but also by following an inborn program of steps to acquire the vocab and grammar of the language in their environment
language acquisition device a biologically organized mental structure in the brain that facilitates the learning of language because it is innately programmed with some of the fundamental rules of grammar
babbling stage early stage of language development, occurring between 3-4 months, when children make nonsensical unrelated sounds
One-word Stage the stage where children mainly speak in one word
Two-word Stage at approximately around the age of 2, children start speaking in two word sentences.
Syntax the rules specify how words should be ordered in a sentence in order to give that sentence meaning
Semantics branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning
Phoneme smallest phonetic unit in a language that is capable of conveying a distinction in meaning
Telegraphic Speech speech that sounds like a telegram, has words arranged in an order that makes sense and contains almost all nouns and verbs
Linguistic Determinism the idea that language shapes cognition and thought.
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis a hypothesis that language determines our character and the way we think. we are shaped by the language around us and therefore so is our character
concepts mental representations of categories of tiems or ideas, based on experience
schema a knowledge cluster or general conceptual framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people, and situations in one's life
script a cluster of knowledge about sequence of events and actions expected to occur in particular settings
algorithms problem solving procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct outcome, if correctly applied
heuristics cognitive strategies of rules of thumb used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks. do not guarantee a correct solution
mental set the tendency to respond to anew problem in the manner used for previous problem
functional fixedness the inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose; a form of mental set
hindisght bias the tendency after learning about an event to second guess or believe that one could have predicted the event in advance
anchoring bias a faulty heuristic caused by basing an estimate on completely unrelated quantity
representativeness bias a faulty heuristic strategy based on the presumption that once people or events are categorized, they share all the features of other members in that category
convergent thinking style of thought that attempts to consider all available information and arrive at the single best possible answer.
divergent thinking thinking that moves away in diverging direction so as to involve a variety of aspects and which sometimes lead to new ideas and concepts
representative heuristics a cognitive bias in which an individual categorizes a situation based on pattern of previous experiences or beliefs about the scenario
availability heuristics how easily something that you’ve seen or heard can be accessed in your memory. the sooner you've seen/heard something the sooner you remember and use it
emotions a four part process that involves physiological arousal, subjective feelings, cognitive interpretations, and behavioral expression, all of which interact. rather than occurring in linear sequence. help organisms deal with important events
display rules the permissible ways of displaying emotions in a particular society
universal expression of emotions facial language/expression are universal although culture decides when we express them
7 universal facial expressions anger, contempt, happiness, sadness, surprise, disgust, fear
lateralization of emotion different influences of the two brain hemispheres on various emotions. left hemisphere apparently influences positive emotions and the right hemisphere influences negative emotions
physiological arousal type of response neural, hormonal, visceral, and muscular changes
subjective feelings type of response the private experience of one's internal affective state
cognitive interpretation type of response attaching meaning to the emotional experience by drawing on memory and perceptual processes
social/behavioral reactions expressing emotion through gestures, facial expressions, or other actions
james lang theory emotion is a product of physiological response. stimulus produces a physical response that in turn produces an emotion
cannon-bard theory emotion is part of the physiological response. they both occur at the same time
two factor theory (schachter-singer) emotions result from an evaluation of the cognitive appraisal and physical arousal
cognitive appraisal individual decide on an appropriate emotional response
opponent process theory emotions have pairs. when one is triggered the other is surpressed
emotional intelligence the ability to understand and control emotional response
motivation all the processes involved in starting, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities
drive biologically instigated motivation
motive an internal mechanisms that selects and directs behavior.
uses for motivation connects observable behavior to internal state (hunger = social pressure or drive), accounts for differences in behavior (intensity), explains perseverance despite adversity, relates bio to behavior
intrinsic motivation desire to engage in an activity for its own sake. internal pleasure
extrinsic motivation desire to engage in an activity to achieve and external consequence, a reward
conscious motivation having the desire to engage in an activity and being aware of that desire
unconscious motivation having a desire to engage in an activity but being consciously unaware of the desire.
drive reduction theory helps us meet biological needs. motivates to take action in order to reduce the tension
arousal theory seek optimum level of excitement and arousal
yerkes dodson law performance increases with physiological or mental arousal but only to a point. when arousal becomes too high, performance decreases
incentive theory rewards and punishments
cognitive dissonance motivates us to have consistent thoughts and behaviors. when those do not meet, individuals experience unpleasant mental tensions. hypocrite
hierarchy of needs. maslow's theory biological needs, safety needs, attachment and affiliation needs, esteem needs, and then self-actualization
approach-approach conflict choosing between two good options
approach avoidance conflict a conflict in which there are both appealing and negative aspects to the decision to be made
avoidance avoidance conflict lesser of two evils
multiple approach-avoidance conflict must choose between options that have both many attractive and negative aspects.
fixed action pattern genetically based behaviors seen across a species that can be set off by a specific stimuli
need biological imbalance that threatens survival
need for achievment mental state that produces a psychological motive to excel or to reach some goal
set point tendency of the body to maintain a certain level of body fat and body weight
sexual response cycle four stage sequence of arousal, plateau, orgasm, and resolution in both men and women
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis The hypothesis that frustration leads to aggressive behavior. Frustration develops when an aggressor is unable to attain a goal
instinct theory we do things based on instinctual urges
stress a physical and mental response to a challenging or threatening situation
stressor a stressful stimuli
general adaption syndrome pattern of general physical responses that take essentially the same form in responding to any serious chronic stressor
alarm reaction first stage of GAS which the body mobilizes its resources to cope with stressor
resistance second stage of GAS during which the body adapts to and uses resources to cope with stressor
exhaustion third stage of GAS during which body depletes its resources in responding to ongoing stressor
type a personality intense, angry, competitive, or perfectionistic characteristics
type b personality relaxed and unstressed
learned helplessness pattern of failure to respond to noxious stimuli after and organism learns its responses are ineffective
Created by: LittleD331
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