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Psych ch. 9
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| The most frequent source of stress and the source that is most often harmful to our health, is our | daily hassles |
| urban press is the idea that | we can be connected 24/7 and that has its advantages and challenges |
| Our major life events are things that | may change the course of our life and can feel like a fork in the road, leading us down a new life path |
| Life events can be experienced as | positive or negative, controllable or uncontrollable. |
| We sometimes refer to this decision making process as an | inner conflict |
| double approach-avoidance conflict is | that in which there are both pros and cons to two or more different options |
| Cataclysmic events are | significant events, often natural disasters that dramatically impact entire communities |
| Economic stressors, such as | financial strain and poverty are inherently stressful. |
| Minority status refers to the | social standing of portions of a society that are often smaller in numbers and have less power, either financially or politically. |
| Discrimination, however, is | more than an attitude(prejudice) and instead relates to ways in which individuals are treated differently due to being a member of a specific group |
| acculturation is | the adoption of the behavior patterns of the surrounding culture |
| stressors include | `daily hassles, major life events, discrimination, poverty |
| stress is | actually a process that includes stressors, body response, what we tell ourselves about stressors, what we do w/ stressors, the resulting outcomes |
| In short, stress is the | interaction of the stressor and the stress response (stress = stressor × stress response). |
| The Fight or Flight Response was introduced by | Walter Cannon. Cannon suggested that, when a stressor comes into our awareness, the body undergoes several automatic changes. |
| The Fight or Flight response is most useful with | physical stressors that need to be responded to now (or soon). |
| The fight or flight response only becomes maladaptive when the | response occurs chronically in relation to non-emergent, non-physical threats |
| the Tend and Befriend response, proposed by...suggests that... | Shelley Taylor...stressors can lead us to band together |
| The General Adaptation Model, proposed by ...is one of the...and should be though of when... | Hans Selye...most well-known and earliest theories of stress...reflecting on the stress process. |
| Selye suggested that there are | three primary phases in stress: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion |
| In the alarm reaction phase, the body | mobilizes its resources to address the stressor. This has some overlap with the Fight or Flight response |
| In the second phase | resistance occurs, where the body tries to cope and adapt with ongoing strain |
| In the exhaustion phase the body’s | resources are depleted and illness often follows |
| Clearly the most adaptive parts of the stress response | are the first two phases. |
| Hans Selye adapted his model in 1975, and stated that | stressors result not only in creating distress, but can also lead to eustress (refers to events that are challenging, but potentially rewarding and lead to growth) |
| Post-Traumatic Growth (PTG) suggests that | when individuals experience suffering or challenging life events, they may be able to emerge from these situations with a profound sense of growth. |
| research supporting the Yerkes-Dodson Curve hypothesizes that | stress can help mobilize us in the short run. When we experience minimal stress, we may also have minimal motivation to do much of anything(moderate stress = get our act into gear, chronic stress = diminished ability to respond) |
| two important stress hormones responsible for the Fight or Flight response | adrenaline (epinephrine) and cortisol |
| The central nervous system (CNS) includes our | brain and spinal cord which allow us to think and respond to a given situation |
| The peripheral nervous system (PNS), sometimes referred to as | “the brain in the body,” includes the nerves that branch out from the spinal cord going to different organs |
| Included in the PNS is the | ANS (automatic, and relatively free from the need to consult too much with the brain before acting) |
| The autonomic nervous system includes | symp (on) and parasymp (off) |
| The sympathetic nervous system (SNS), the “on” switch, has | “sympathy” for us when we’re in danger and activates the Fight or Flight response |
| The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), the off switch, | The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), the off switch, |
| epinephrine is released by...into the... | symp...blood stream |
| The adrenal gland is situated on ...the core is the...and the covering is the.. | the top of the kidney...adrenal medulla...adrenal cortex |
| fibers from the..directly innervate the adrenal medulla | thoracic portion of spinal cord |
| in the neuroendocrine system, there is the... | hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA-axis) |
| hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA-axis) , which among other things, allows for | release of cortisol, a stress hormone. |
| The HPA-axis is composed of | hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal gland) which together help regulate things such as mood, immune system, energy, digestion, and sexuality |
| The hypothalamus is located and controls | above the brain stem... basic aspects of functioning such as sleep, temperature, hunger, and thirst |
| During the Fight or Flight response, the hypothalamus activates the | the pituitary gland, an endocrine gland about the size of a pea, located just below the hypothalamus |
| pituitary gland is often called | master gland |
| The adrenal cortex is responsible for | release of the hormone cortisol. |
| In addition to its direct effects on the Fight or Fight response, cortisol also | acts indirectly by increasing synthesis of adrenaline in the adrenal medulla |
| Cortisol is a...that aids in.. | steroid hormone...increasing blood sugar availability (energy) and decreases the activity of the immune system |
| prolonged | chronicity |
| The diathesis-stress model was originally proposed to explain the | development of mental health conditions, but it applies equally well to help explain physical health outcomes of stress |
| The diathesis-stress model suggests that we all have | underlying vulnerabilities (predispositions) to different conditions. |
| vulnerability can be | inherited or acquired |
| The field of psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) refers to a | multidisciplinary study of how the immune system interacts with psychological stress, behavior, the nervous system, and the endocrine system |
| Chronic Academic Stress | During final exam periods, immune system functioning may be compromised resulting in students developing increased vulnerability to colds |
| caregiving | caregivers of patients with dementia, experience lower immune functioning and increased risk of ill health |
| marital conflict | couples evidencing high levels of hostile behaviors toward one another were 60% slower in their healing time compared to couples in a low hostility group |
| limited sleep | individuals obtaining less than 7 hours of sleep were more than 2.9 times more likely to develop a cold than those obtaining 8 or more hours of sleep |
| Subtypes of lymphocytes include: | T-cells that learn to recognize invaders (2) B-cells that secrete antibodies, which bind to invaders and mark them to be destroyed, and (3) natural killer cells |
| Cytokines send messages that promote | inflammation that helps with cleaning up of the battlefield. |
| There is a strong link between psychological factors and | cardiovascular disease (CVD). |
| The INTER HEART study, a large study examining 30,000 people from different cultures, found that | heart disease was clearly linked to factors such as frequent major life events, depression, financial stress, and workplace/home stress. |
| The most simplistic pathway between heart disease and stress is via | behavioral factors |
| A fat laden diet coats the | arteries, narrowing them, impacting blood flow (atherosclerosis |
| High sodium levels relate to | increased blood pressure, or strain on the heart. |
| Obesity, particularly fat content in the abdomen, impacts | hormonal levels and increases the risk of heart disease. |
| tobacco use may account for up to | 35% of the risk of developing cardiovascular disease, through the process of hardening of the arteries, (arteriosclerosis |
| The final mechanism through which stress may influence cardiovascular outcomes, is the process of | cardiovascular reactivity and recovery |
| Cardiovascular reactivity refers to the | relationship between stressors and the fairly immediate changes seen in cardiovascular functioning, as assessed by heart rate and blood pressure |
| Increasing research has turned to examine not only the degree to which heart rate and blood pressure increase in response to stressors, but the | amount of time it takes the body to recover to baseline functioning |
| In one meta-analysis, Schuler and O’Brien (Schuler & O'Brien, 1997) found that | delayed cardiovascular recovery was associated with development of high blood pressure, one of the main risk factors for heart attacks and strokes. |
| Diabetes mellitus is another | chronic health condition that may be impacted by stress. Diabetes is an illness defined by either a compromised ability or complete inability to produce adequate insulin |
| Insulin is a hormone that facilitates | blood glucose from leaving the bloodstream and entering tissue where it is needed for energy |
| Type I diabetes typically has an onset | in childhood and is associated with complete lack of ability to produce insulin, thus requiring individuals to inject insulin supplements |
| Type II diabetes is a more | slowly acquired form of diabetes, associated with decreased insulin sensitivity, and inability of the body to compensate with higher and higher levels of insulin production |
| The Horn study, a large cross-sectional study (n=2,262), found that even after controlling for | Waist-Hip-Ratio, individuals reporting significant life events over the prior 5 years, were 50% more likely to have Type II diabetes. |
| The first prospective study by Roikkonen (Räikkönen, Matthews, & Kuller, 2007) (n=525) found that | women with pre-existing depression and those experiencing severely stressful life events were at increased risk of developing the disease at follow-up, 15 years later |
| The inflammatory response, which increases following stress, appears to | play a pivotal role in the development of insulin resistance via increased difficulty in insulin metabolism |
| Chronic pain (vs. acute pain) lasts | longer than expected and often has no clear or obvious cause. |
| There are numerous types of headaches, but the most frequent are | tension headaches and migraines |
| Rheumatoid arthritis (RA), is a | painful condition resulting from chronic inflammation of the joints, particularly of the hands and feet |
| RA is an | autoimmune disease, meaning that the immune system mistakenly attacks its own tissue, leading to damage |
| In patients with RA, it appears that the | SNS nerve fibers may be lost in the inflamed tissues of RA patients |
| The “kindling hypothesis” suggests that | major life stressors may sensitize individuals to depression, leaving them vulnerable to future stressors and the risk of developing depression |
| Some of the most common forms of anxiety include | Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder |
| PTSD, by definition originates with a | stressor. The clinical criteria for a diagnosis of PTSD include exposure to a trauma (i.e., stressor) that endangers the life of oneself or others and elicits a sense of helplessness, fear, or horror. |
| psychosis is a | severe and serious psychological state wherein there is loss of contact with reality |
| Perceptions include the ways we | think about stress and interpret all aspects of the stress process |
| While resources are ...buffers... | assets that help us attain our objectives...protect us from the effects of stress |
| Richard Lazarus was one of the first researchers to look at the | cognitive, or thinking, component of stress. He suggested that when confronted with a stressor, a two-step process known as cognitive appraisal occurs |
| during the first step of cognitive appraisal theory (called...) you... | primary appraisal...determine if a situation holds any danger. |
| The secondary appraisal answers the question | Do I have what I need to face the situation?” |
| Weiner (Weiner, 1980, 1986) stated that | when individuals consider how a negative situation relates to them, they use the following attributional dimensions: when individuals consider how a negative situation relates to them, they use the following attributional dimensions |
| attributional dimensions include | internal/external: due to my own abilities vs. result of external factors, global/specific: all situations vs just this one situation, stable/unstable: always going to be like this vs temporary |
| Beck, a prominent psychologist, described how certain combinations of attributions, called...lead to... | explanatory style...heightened vulnerability to depression |
| Beck suggested that a...of... to explain... | cognitive triad...internal, global, stable attributions...negative events is associated with increased risk of depression |
| Personal control refers to the | degree to which individuals have confidence that they are able to navigate life stressors and exert influence on outcomes |
| One of the original scientists to examine personal control, Rotter (Rotter, 1966) found that | individuals tend to have primarily an internal or external locus of control. |
| With an internal locus of control, people tend to | think that their destiny lies largely in their own hands. |
| Individuals with an external locus of control tend to | feel that ultimately external circumstances (politics, economics, health care providers, corporations) determine the course of the world and as a consequence one’s destiny. |
| Hardy Personality. This personality type is defined by | three different traits: commitment to self, determination to exert control over one’s life, and viewing adaptations as challenges rather than as a source of stress |
| Optimism. Dispositional optimism is defined as the | general expectation that things will turn out well. |
| Hostility and anger, it turns out, can be | hard on the heart |
| Cynical hostility, includes traits such as | being mistrustful of others, thinking the worst of humanity, and in general interacting with others in a cynical or hostile manner (attitude) |
| anger is an...and it is often an expressin of.. | emotion...cynical hostility |
| The vast majority of research suggests that increased social support is linked to | better physical health, more positive mental health outcomes, and longer life expectancy |
| Religion refers to a | body of formal beliefs of a transcendent nature, often associated with a specific community of believers. |
| Spirituality is more broadly defined and includes a search for | meaning and connection with something greater than oneself. |
| Coping refers to the ways in which we | respond, both in our thought processes and our outward behaviors, as we attempt to navigate stress |
| Traditionally, coping has been categorized into two forms: | problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping. |
| Whereas problem-focused coping is oriented toward ...emotion-focused coping is more oriented to | trying to change the stressor or improve the situation...addressing the emotional distress resulting from the situation |
| One form of problem-focused coping is ..which involves... | confrontive coping...addressing a problem head on |
| Planful problem-solving, another subtype of problem-focused coping, entails | reflecting on various options and creating a guide going forward. |
| Emotion-focused coping can include strategies such as | seeking social support, trying to find meaning in a situation, or avoiding the situation, hoping that it will improve on its own. |
| other forms of emotion-focused coping that are often associated with positive outcomes include | humor and positive reappraisal |
| The forms of emotion-focused coping that appear to be most toxic, are...particularly when they are... | escape-avoidance coping strategies...used more than just briefly. |
| Escape-avoidance includes | denial and substance use. |
| So, even before the stressor…‥what do we do to keep ourselves robust, balanced, grounded | we either do preventive coping or proactive coping |
| a form of preventive coping, ... , includes | self-care...actions that fortify our physical and emotional well-being and are typically done habitually |
| Proactive coping refers to a type of coping in which we | envision what we desire for the future and anticipate different obstacles that might arise on our journey to where we are going |
| Health behaviors are | preventive actions that we take to maximize our physical and emotional well-being |
| Some of the most basic and important health behaviors include the following | (1) adequate sleep, (2) moderate exercise, (3) a healthy diet, and (4) conservative use of substances. |
| Research studies have found that cardiovascular exercise is equally effective for treating mild to moderate | depression, when compared to antidepressant medications. |
| Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) refers to a wide range of activities that | may have health benefits, but are not part of mainstream western medicine |
| the most frequently considered CAM treatments include | mind-body strategies |
| This mind-body area of CAM includes options such as | mindfulness meditation or yoga |
| Yoga, which is a | specific form of mindfulness meditation, involves a series of poses and movements |
| The biopsychosocial model acknowledges that we are | whole human beings and our physical well-being cannot be separated from our psychological or social functioning. |
| motivational interviewing is a type of | intervention focused on resolving ambivalence |
| Relaxation strategies such as...may also be taught to provide strategies on how to better manage stress levels | progressive muscle relaxation or imagery |
| cognitive behavioral therapy might be used to identify | thought patterns that perpetuate unwanted health behaviors, helping the patient to explore alternative thought patterns. |
| Commonly, when working with individuals, emotional disclosure | regarding how one’s life has changed since the onset of a disease is important |
| Beyond emotional disclosure, often | psychoeducation can be of benefit to learn skills that improve daily functioning when living with a chronic health condition |
| question that is answered by predicting | what can happen? |
| goal of psychology, to answer questions of what can happen in the future | predict |
| goal of psychology, to answer questions of how to change outcomes and manage stress | change |
| questions that are answered by explaining | how and why |
| question that is answered by describing | what |
| goal of psychology, to answer questions of how and why people respond differently to stress | explain |
| goal of psychology, to answer questions of what stress is and what its effects can be | describe |
| question that is answered by changing | how to manage |
Created by:
handrzej
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