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Psych Ch. 8
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Social psychologists are interested in the ways that | social situations (i.e., the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others) influence people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. |
| In the equation, B = f(P + E + PE), social psychcologists are most interested in | E, the environment. In particular, social psychology focuses on behavior as a function of the social environment, including people (as in the scenarios above), social information (e.g., from the media), etc |
| reactance; that is, they tend to | rebel when told what to do |
| social influence is | how to get others to think or behave in certain ways |
| social cognition is | how to make sense of their own and others’ behavior |
| social relations are | how to get along with other people |
| social psychology uses the | scientific method to describe, explain, and predict how we perceive and affect one another |
| a collective is | three or more people engaged in common activities but having minimal direct interaction |
| a group consists of | three or more interacting persons who share common goals, have a stable relationship, are somewhat interdependent, and perceive that they are part of something larger than themselves. |
| social facilitation suggests that | the presence of others only sometimes enhanced performance |
| social inhibition suggests that | at other times the presence of others actually hindered performance |
| Robert Zajonc proposed that arousal was the mechanism underlying | both facilitation and inhibition. How that arousal affects our behavior is a function of the task at hand |
| Social loafing refers to the phenomenon where | people tend to expend less effort on collective tasks than they do when performing the same task alone |
| people are less likely to | loaf when their individual contributions to the collective effort can be isolated, when the task is something personally very important to the individual, or when they don’t want to let their team-mates down |
| Deindividuation is the | reduction of self-awareness and inhibitions that can occur when an individual is a part of a collective whose members feel anonymous. |
| Groupthink is | faulty decision-making that involves the overestimation of the group’s capabilities, pressure toward reaching consensus, and being closed off to alternative courses of action |
| steps to take to avoid groupthink include: remain...actively...question...and subdivide... | object/impartial w/o endorsing opinion of group...encourage other critical viewpoints (devil's advocate)...group thinking rather than maintaining harmony...group and then bring back together to discuss differences of opinion |
| Conformity is the | tendency to change one’s beliefs or behaviors in response to perceived social pressure so that behavior is consistent with group standards |
| Deutsch and Gerard (1955) introduced two concepts that explain why people conform | normative and informational social influence |
| Normative social influence (NSI) means that people | conform out of a desire to be liked and accepted (not rejected) and to affiliate with others. |
| Informational social influence (ISI) means that people | conform out of a desire to be right. |
| Obedience is defined by social psychologists as the | performance of an action in response to the direct orders of an authority or person of higher status. |
| Asch's experiment | line test - conformity |
| Milgram's experiment | shocking - obedience |
| zimbardo's experiment | prison scenario (power of situation) |
| Compliance means that you were | asked to do something and you agreed |
| social influence | attempts by others to change our behavior. (conformity, compliance, obedience) |
| An attitude is defined as an | evaluation of a particular object, place, event, idea, or person. |
| Social psychological research has shown that our attitudes are formed by our | experiences |
| We can also form attitudes based on | classical, operant, and observational learning processes |
| Cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957) exists when | related cognitions, feelings or behaviors are inconsistent or contradictory. |
| Persuasion is defined as an | active method of influence that attempts to guide people toward the adoption of an attitude |
| Social psychologists have identified two basic routes to persuasion | central and peripheral |
| The central route results from a person’s | careful and thoughtful consideration of the true value of the information being presented |
| The peripheral route results from a person | being influenced by cues other than the quality of the message content. |
| Attributions are | conclusions that we draw about the causes of people’s behavior |
| The person who is watching and drawing conclusions about others’ behavior is called the | observer |
| The person whose behavior is being watched and evaluated is called the | actor |
| you’re making an internal (also called personal or dispositional) attribution when | you, as an observer, conclude that an actor’s behavior is due to characteristics or tendencies of the actor that endure over time |
| you’re making an external or...when... | situational attribution...you conclude that Charlie Sheen must be under a lot of stress, given that he was one of the highest paid performers on TV |
| fundamental attribution error | “Wow, something must be wrong with Charlie Sheen” |
| we tend to make the fundamental attribution error when considering | the causes of others’ behavior, but we are quite capable of seeing the external factors that cause our own behavior |
| the actor-observer bias (Jones & Nisbett, 1972) is the tendency of making | internal attributions for others' behavior but situational attributions for our own behavior |
| self-serving bias. | We tend to make external attributions when the outcome of our behavior is negative and internal attributions when the outcome is positive |
| The self typically refers to | your entire person, including your mental processes, body image and personality characteristics |
| Our self-concept is an | organized structure of cognitions or thoughts that we have about self, comprised of self-schemas |
| A self-schema is a | cognitive component of the self, which includes the perceptions we have of our social identities and personal qualities, as well as our generalizations about the self based on experience. |
| Our self-schemas include an array of | information and attributes we have about ourselves, such as hard-working, ethnical, shy, dependable |
| The theory of social comparisons states that | people evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to similar others |
| upward comparisons | individuals make self-evaluations by seeking out information about people in more favorable circumstances, e.g., someone of higher ability or in a more fortunate position |
| downward comparisons | individuals make self-evaluations against a person of lesser ability or in a less fortunate position |
| Downward comparisons can serve to ....while upward comparisons may help | enhance self-esteem...a person to experience a sense of optimism about the future |
| Self-esteem refers to how one | evaluates and feels about oneself |
| Current research focuses on two main functions of self-esteem. | terror management theory and sociometer hypothesis |
| Terror Management Theory (Greenberg, Solomon, & Pyszczynski, 1997) from the previous chapter on personality. We develop self-esteem in | order to cope with the terror of our own mortality. |
| the Sociometer Hypothesis (Leary & Baumeister, 2000) wherein self-esteem functions as a | gauge of our social competence or degree of acceptance by others. |
| Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977) refers to an | individual’s judgments of his or her capabilities to perform given actions. |
| In contrast to self-esteem, which is concerned with judgments of self-worth, self-efficacy is concerned with | judgments of personal capability, usually in a very specific domain (Bandura, 1997). |
| Zajacova, Lynch and Espenshade (2005) found that academic self-efficacy beliefs predicted | grades and number of credit hours completed for first-year students |
| social categorizations is the process of | sorting people into groups on the basis of common characteristics or attributes |
| ingroup is your | membership into a particular group |
| outgroup is your | dismembership in a group you don't belong in |
| outgroup homogeneity effect | We have a harder time recognizing the richness and diversity of outgroups because we often have very limited experience with them |
| Stereotypes are | associations that link certain traits, characteristics, and attributes with particular social categories |
| When you are highly distracted, you are likely to respond ....if you had all the time and cognitive resources in the world to consider an appropriate response.... | automatically..controlled |
| In the aftermath of the Holocaust and World War II, social psychologists focused on...including... | social influence...conformity, obedience and attitude change |
| The study of social relations likewise emerged as a means of | understanding social conflict surrounding the Civil Rights Movement, the desegregation of American public schools, increasing societal violence, and the unwillingness or inability to get along with and help one another. |
| Prejudice has to do with | feelings—usually negative—toward people based on their membership or affiliation with a particular social group |
| Discrimination has more to do with | how we treat people than how we feel about people (although feelings toward and treatment of others are often related); it can be defined as behavior directed against people because of their membership or affiliation with a particular social group |
| Old-fashioned prejudice is | blatant, in-your-face, undeniably negative attitudes and behaviors toward a particular social group |
| This more subtle form of prejudice is called | modern prejudice, and it manifests itself in situations where norms for how to respond are ambiguous. |
| a social stigma is a | “marking” that indicates that a person “belongs to a group” that is perceived as different, inferior, or even dangerous. |
| stereotype threat is | fear that one’s performance will confirm stereotypes about one’s ingroup. |
| prejudice reduction; that is, what | strategies can we use to reduce stereotypes, prejudices, and acts of discrimination |
| One of the earliest ideas for improving strained relations between social groups is to | increase intergroup contact |
| another way to reduce prejudice is through...which acknowledges... | self-regulate...that all of us, at one point or another, are likely to respond in a biased way even if we mean well |
| self-regulation. It is the process of bringing | one’s behavior inline with one’s standards |
| In psychology, aggression refers to any | behavior that is intended to harm or injure someone who does not want to be harmed or injured |
| Relational aggression is | intentionally harming someone’s social relationships through, for example, spreading a nasty rumor or circulating private information that you know will humiliate a person |
| These are all active forms of aggression, but you can be | passively aggressive as well, by intentionally failing to prevent harm. |
| Frustration-aggression theory (Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939) suggests that | aggression is due to frustration that we experience when we are blocked from achieving a particular goal |
| According to Berkowitz’s (1989) revision of frustration-aggression theory, | basically anything that arouses negative feelings can potentially lead to aggression |
| Social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) suggests that we | learn by watching and imitating others, particularly when the aggressive models have been reinforced for behaving aggressively. |
| Prosocial behavior includes | actions that benefit individuals or groups |
| Altruism is a form of | prosocial behavior that is based on the apparently unselfish motivation to serve others above self |
| Batson and colleagues define empathy as | other-oriented emotional response that is congruent with the perceived welfare of another person |
| Advocates of the egoistic view argue that helping behavior is | selfish in nature or not truly altruistic |
| Bibb Latané and John Darley found an....and their explanation has been called the... | inverse relationship between group size and helping...bystander effect (diffusion of responsibility)—an individual is less likely to provide assistance as the number of bystanders increases |
| Attraction occurs when | two or more people are drawn together, and it is studied scientifically by social psychologists interested in how and why it occurs. |
| A strong predictor of whether two people will be friends is proximity, or | how close they are in physical space |
| Social psychological research also suggests that similarity | breeds attraction and liking. As simple as it seems, we tend to like people who are like us along a variety of dimensions, |
| The matching hypothesis broadly asserts that people | of similar attractiveness levels are drawn to one another as romantic partners |
| According to Sternberg’s (1986) Triangular Theory, love is a | relationship that consists of three components: intimacy, passion, and commitment |
| Intimacy encompasses feelings of | closeness, connectedness, and emotional intimacy |
| passion includes the | drives that lead to romance, physical attraction, and sexual consummation |
| commitment is the decision to | love and maintain that love |
Created by:
handrzej
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