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Psych Ch 7
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| personality is a | person’s reliable pattern of thinking, feeling, and doing. |
| assumptions are | premises that are accepted without proof |
| Dialectic pairs are | opposing ideas that serve to expose the essential questions of a discipline |
| In the study of personality, the opposing ideas are as follows: | 1) determinism vs. free will 2) nature vs. nurture 3) universality vs. uniqueness 4) proactive vs. reactive 5) static vs. dynamic |
| The nature-nurture dialectic corresponds with the question | What causes personality |
| The universality-uniqueness dialectic corresponds with the question: | Is everyone basically the same |
| The proactive-reactive dialectic corresponds with the question | Are behaviors driven by inner or outer forces |
| the static-dynamic dialectic pair corresponds with the question | Do people change over time |
| measurement is a process of | assigning numbers to characteristics we believe exist in people |
| Plato (427–347 B.C.E.) viewed people as having a | dualist nature (physical body as well as an immortal soul/mind) |
| According to Plato, the soul can be further divided into | ee parts: Appetite, Reason, and Spirit |
| Galen is credited with formulating one of the earliest | biological theories of personality. Galen posited that personality was caused by the relative balance of the four basic bodily fluids (called humors). The four humors were: blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm. |
| blood = | ssanguine (cheerful, confident, optimistic) |
| phlegm = | phlematic (slow/stolid temperment) |
| blackbile = | melancholy (sadness and depression) |
| excess yellow bile = | choleric (irratability and anger) |
| The big idea behind the psychodynamic perspective is that | personality is the product of hidden forces in the mind. |
| the psychodynamic perspective is | deterministic which means it posits that humans have no free will in choosing their actions |
| psychodynamic perspective also emphasizes the role of...meaning that... | nature...biology is a stronger influence than learing |
| the psychodynamic perspective assumes the | universality of human nature. In other words, the apparent uniqueness of each individual is an illusion. |
| people are both...according to the psychodynamic perspective | proactive and reactive. That is, some behaviors are driven by internal forces; whereas, other behaviors are reactions to environmental or social factors |
| the psychodynamic perspective posits that personality is | static. Once a person reaches adulthood, his or her personality remains fixed. |
| Freud’s theory posits that there are different | levels of consciousness |
| Freud's theory was the first to propose | a developmental trajectory to personality. In other words, Freud thought the minds of children were qualitatively different than the minds of adults. |
| Freud developed his “talking cure,” known as | psychoanalysis |
| The conscious is what we | we experience in our daily lives. It consists of the thoughts and feelings we notice ourselves having as we navigate the world. |
| Freud argued that we also possess a preconscious. The preconscious consists of | thoughts that we can bring into conscious thought when we want to. |
| Freud argued that the unconscious had the | most influence on our actions. The unconscious is a store of uncomfortable thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories |
| eros are...and thanatos are... | life drives...death drives |
| eros involves urges to...which freud called... | create and sustain life and is ultamitely an expression of our sexual impulses...libido |
| thanatos involves | the drive to destroy life, and is the source of aggressive impulses |
| Freud also posited that the structure of the mind is divided into three parts: | id, ego, and superego |
| The id (the “It”) is the | largest part of the mind and is situated completely in the unconscious. The id is present at birth and is the source of all of our psychic energy |
| the id operates under the...meaning its main motivation is... | pleasure principle...self-gratification |
| The ego (the “I”) contains our | conscious experience of ourselves and the world, but it is also connected to our unconscious |
| ego developes...as the self begins interacting with the... | after birth...real world |
| ego operates under the...meaning that its main motivation is to | reality principle...successfully navigate reality and keep the self safe from harm |
| superego is the last structure of the mind to... | develop and consists of our internalized ideals |
| superego is essentially our | conscience |
| The superego operates under the | Idealistic Principle, meaning that its main motivation is to engage in morally perfect behavior |
| Psychic conflict occurs when | two or more parts of the mind have incompatible urges |
| the ego is sometimes referred to as the | executive mediator |
| ego negotiates some kind of compromise among conflicting impulses through...which are... | defense mechanisms...strategies used by the ego to protect the self from the anxiety generated by psychic conflict |
| The most basic defense mechanism is | denial (involves refusing to believe that the source of anxiety exists) |
| Another defense mechanism is | Repression involves involuntarily pushing anxiety-inducing cognitions out of awareness |
| Reaction formation is one of the most interesting and convoluted defense mechanisms. Reaction formation consists | of the ego instigating behaviors that are the exact opposite of the anxiety-inducing impulse |
| Projection reduces | anxiety by taking uncomfortable impulses off the self and placing them onto others. |
| Sublimation consists of ...and is the only defense mechanism freud said was... | channeling an unacceptable impulse into a socially acceptable and constructive activity...healthy |
| psychosexual development. According to his theory, people go through | a series of distinct stages, with each stage having a bodily focus and developmental theme to be resolved |
| The Oral Stage begins | birth and lasts until about 18 months of age. As the name implies, the bodily focus of this stage is the mouth, tongue, and lips. In other words, a child at this stage interacts with the world primarily through her or his mouth. |
| The Anal Stage occurs from | 18 to 36 months. The bodily focus of this stage centers on the bowels and bladder. This corresponds to the time when children are trying to gain control over their bodily functions through toilet training. Freud |
| The Phallic Stage occurs from | 3 to 6 years of age. The bodily focus of this stage is the penis for boys and the clitoris for girls (however, Freud’s explanation of this stage is noticeably male-centric), and the theme is gender identity. |
| Freud called this pattern of feeling maternal attraction and paternal rivalry the | Oedipus complex |
| the process of identification, which involves | incorporating the father’s beliefs and values into their emerging superegos. |
| The Latency Stage occurs from | 7 to sexual puberty. There is no bodily focus or developmental theme during this stage. girls pursue interaction with girls and boys with boys |
| the Genital Stage, which occurs from | which occurs from puberty to adulthood. The bodily focus is back on the genitals . The theme to be resolved is creating and enriching life, and young men and women become interested in opposite-sex interactions. |
| Psychic energy (libido) is required to successfully | resolve the thematic issues and advance through each stage. |
| Fixation is the act of | leaving too much libido behind in a particular stage of development. For example, if a person struggles during his oral stage, he runs the risk of becoming orally fixated. |
| regression occurs when a person | deals with stress or anxiety by retreating to an earlier, more immature stage of development |
| free association is where the | patient simply says whatever comes to mind and tha analyst interperts the content |
| freud also used dream analysis to | discover the nature of the patient's personality |
| Parapraxis is the accidental | leakage of the unconscious mind into observable behaviors. For example, if you were to accidentally break a vase that your mother-in-law gave you as a gift, you would be latently angry at her |
| the projection hypothesis (frank) is based on | freuds notion of projection as a defense mechanism |
| the projection hypothesis sates that if a person | is presented with an ambiguous stimulus to interpret, the persons personality will be projected onto the stimulus |
| v | Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test |
| The Rorschach Inkblot Test was created in 1921 by | Hermann Rorschach, a psychiatrist from Switzerland. Rorschach originally conceptualized it as a perception-cognition test to distinguish between different groups of people |
| The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was developed | by Henry Murray and his student Christiana Morgan in the 1930s at Harvard University. In contrast to the Rorschach, the TAT consists of 31 drawings of ambiguous situations, most of them involving people |
| jung believed in the | collective unconscious which is a shared, inborn set of ideas and memories specific to each species that is inherited at birth |
| archetypes | all people share a certain set of ideas or concepts, |
| Terror Management Theory (TMT) is a theory of human behavior with | roots in the psychodynamic perspective (Pyszczynski, Greenberg, & Solomon, 1997). According to TMT, people are made anxious by the thought that they are going to die some day. |
| clinging more tightly to ones belief system is | worldview defense |
| The humanistic perspective is sometimes referred to as the | third force of psychology |
| The big idea behind the humanistic perspective is that people have the | innate potential to develop into healthy, productive individuals, unless they are somehow thwarted by their environment. |
| humanists believed in | self-awareness and free will. In other words, they explicitly stated that people understand their own motivations and have the ability to freely choose what their behaviors will be |
| the humanistic perspective places more emphasis on | nurture than nature |
| humanism posits that each person is | unique and can only be understood by seeing the world from his or her perspective |
| the humanistic perspective posits that people are | proactive rather than reactive. In other words, people are motivated to actively pursue their inner desires rather than passively reacting to the world around them. |
| in humanistic perspective, personality is | dynamic and can be changed if one so chooses |
| Essentially, Rogers argued that personality is the result of | of interactions between a person’s innate growth potential and the demands of the environment. |
| Rogers believes that within each person there is an | actualizing tendency which is the motivation to preserve and enrich life |
| the intrinsic goal of life is...according to rogers | self-actualization |
| Moreover, Rogers posited that our personalities stemmed from our..which is called.. | conscious experience of everything in our lives (phenomenology |
| The phenomenal field is the place where all | forces come together, including innate biological drives, environmental demands, learned behaviors, and personal values. |
| self-concept, according to rogers is... | how a person percieves the self |
| Within the self-concept structure, we each have | a real self and an ideal self. |
| the real self consists of who | we would become if unfettered by the demands of the outside world |
| the ideal self comes from our | environment and those around us |
| the ideal self is the | world's demand of who we"should" be |
| Under ideal conditions, there would be a great deal of overlap between | real self and the ideal self, a condition Rogers called congruence. |
| incongruence is when | people experience a mismatch between who they are driven to become and what the world is telling them to become |
| In order to self-actualize, people need to be | freed from the demands of others and shown unconditional positive regard |
| Unconditional positive regard is the giving of | acceptance and love to a person regardless of her or his behavior. |
| unconditional positive regard consists of three essential elements | genuineness, acceptance, and empathy |
| conditions of worth are when people | in our lives send us the message that we have to meet certain conditions if we are going to be considered worthy of their love and affection |
| Like Rogers, Maslow believed that humans have an | innate drive to self-actualize. |
| Unlike Rogers, however, Maslow believed that self-actualization could only occur if the | fundamental needs for survival, safety, and social acceptance were met. |
| Motivation is based on (maslow) | drive reduction theory, which posits that animals (including humans) are motivated to reduce deficiencies in their well-being (e.g., drink to reduce thirst, eat to reduce hunger). |
| metamotivation involves the | desire to grow |
| maslows hierarchy of needs levels | bottom - basic biological processes(food and water), safety, security and comfort (clothing/shelter), love and social acceptance (friendship/fam/sex), self esteem (self-confidenct/achievement/respect), self-actualization(peak experiences) |
| Peak experiences involve | self-transcendence, where a person becomes so focused on a task or activity that they lose their self-awareness |
| Flow is defined as the | complete absorption in what one is doing |
| autotelic | the process itself becomes the goal |
| For flow there must first be | challenges that stretch but don’t exceed one’s current skills. |
| Second, the task must have | clear goals with immediate feedback about the progress being made |
| The trait perspective consists of a series of attempts to reduce human personality to its | basic elements, or traits. In other words, it seeks to define the minimum core set of characteristics that could be used to describe all personalities |
| a trait can be defined as a | stable attribute of personality |
| There are several characteristics of the trait perspective worth noting. First, it is | deterministic in that it assumes people do not freely choose each behavior, but instead have characteristic patterns into which they fall. |
| Second, the trait perspective emphasizes | nature. That is, these traits are assumed to have biological underpinnings, usually forged into the species through evolutionary pressures |
| Third, the trait perspective assumes | universality. The only reason that people seem unique is because they have differing amounts of the same core personality traits |
| Finally, the trait perspective assumes that people are essentially | static over the course of their lives. That is, we are born with certain quantities of core traits and those traits don’t vary much as we age. |
| Factor analysis is a | mathematical process that identifies how large numbers of individual items tend to cluster together in groups. |
| These groups are called | factors (city) |
| Hans Eysenck posited that personality comprised three traits | extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. |
| Raymond Cattell identified | 16 source traits |
| the Five Factor Theory posits that personality is a | combination of the five enduring personality characteristics common to everyone. (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness.) OCEAN |
| Neuroticism is the tendency to experience | negative emotions, such as anxiety, guilt, sadness, and anger. |
| Extraversion is the tendency to be | externally oriented. People high in extraversion tend to be highly social, talkative, excitable, assertive, active, and outgoing |
| Openness is the willingness to | experience new and different things. People who are high in openness tend to be curious, adventurous, and prone to fantasy. |
| Agreeableness is the tendency to be | cooperative and caring toward other people. |
| Conscientiousness is the tendency to be | responsible and disciplined. People high in conscientiousness tend to work hard, strive for goals, and persevere in the face of difficulty |
| According to McCrae and Costa (2003), these five traits are completely | separate and independent of each other. In other words, being high in one trait does not have any influence on any of the other traits |
| In factor analytic terminology, we would describe these traits as being | orthogonal |
| the current explanation is that these 5 traits are | biologically based, meaning that they are the product of the functions of genes, the brain, and the body |
| Personality traits purportedly evolved in our species over time ...and exist... | biological evolution...independent of learning and experience |
| Why would personality have evolved along these five dimensions? | One possible answer is that the traits correspond to essential information that one would want to know about another person. |
| personality traits are measured using a combination of | behavioral observation and self-report questionnaires. |
| Self-report questionnaires (sometimes called surveys or tests) are also used to measure | personality traits. Essentially, these surveys ask people to respond to items with a limited number of responses |
| self-report questionnaires are sometimes called | objective tests even tho they're subjective |
| The Five Factor Theory relies on the | NEO Personality Inventory to assess the Big Five traits. |
| The “NEO” stands for | Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness. |
| The most famous objective test of personality traits is the ...which was designed to assess the... | Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory ...personality traits of people with psychological disorders, like depression or schizophrenia. |
| Daniel Nettle has argued that variations on the Big Five personality traits can be understood | the context of evolutionary processes (That is, each trait involves a trade-off of costs and benefits in terms of evolutionary fitness) |
| evolutionary fitness of traits means each trait involves a | trade off of costs and benefits to the species |
| The social cognitive perspective conceptualizes personality as emerging from the | interactions among conscious thoughts, learned behaviors, and environmental situations |
| the social cognitive perspective has an | agentic view of people. In other words, this perspective conceptualizes people as being active causal agents. |
| the social cognitive perspective assumes an...specifically it assumes that people are bornw ith... | interaction between nature and nurture...certain predispositions that help to shape personality |
| social cog. persp. also assumes that people's personalities develop through... | interactions with their environment (partly innate and partly learned) |
| Second, the social cognitive perspective assumes a position that incorporates both | determinism and free will. There are causal influences on personality that are not freely chosen, such as one’s genetic make up and some environmental forces. However, there are also causal influences on personality that are chosen |
| Third, the cognitive perspective is | dynamic. In contrast to the trait perspective which assumes that personality is stable over time, the social cognitive perspective assumes that personality varies as a function of the environment. |
| Fourth, the cognitive perspective assumes that people are both | proactive and reactive, meaning that people respond to environments but it would be an oversimplification to say that the social cog. persp. characterizes people as being mere responders to stimuli |
| social cognitive perspective assumes that personality is | universal. In other words, there is a finite set of laws that govern personality |
| your personality is your | pattern of responding to the world based on your innate tendencies and previous experiences |
| soc cog persp = | grand unified theory of personality |
| Bandura’s model of reciprocal determinism (1978) posits that personality is caused by...which are.. | 3 interacting factors..1) internal personal factors; 2) behavioral (learning) factors; and 3) environmental factors |
| The internal personal factors in Bandura’s model consist of | thoughts, feelings, and biological characteristics that make you who you are (allergies) |
| One internal personal factor that Bandura focused on was self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is a person’s | belief that he or she can perform a behavior that will produce wanted outcomes |
| The behavioral factors consist of your | learning history (likes/dislikes are learned through classical conditioning) |
| Bandura also postulated that our personalities are influenced by our | social learning history (we take notice of the actions and consequences of the people around us and modify our own behaviors accordingly) |
| The third component of Bandura’s model consists of environmental factors. These are the | external determinants of your personality and behaviors(being more outgoing during a party) |
| mastery experience results in | increases in self-efficacy. Conversely, experiencing failure can lower one’s self-efficacy and make them less likely to try a particular behavior in the future |
| Bandura’s theory adds the notion that people are capable of learning merely by observing others. This is a process known as | observational learning. In other words, you don’t need to go through something to learn from it. |
| modeling is when we | pay attention to a particular persons actions and learning from them |
| As with the trait perspective, the social-cognitive perspective relies on | behavioral observations and self-report questionnaires to assess personality |
| One of the most recent developments in the social-cognitive perspective has been research on ...which emphasizes an... | self-regulation theory...internal personal factor in determining behaviors people choose to engage in |
| Specifically, self-regulation theory posits that all human behavior is ...which are.. | organized around goals...desired states abstractly represented in the mind of a person |
| Two important goal-related thoughts are | expectancies (involve confidence or doubt ab out the likelihoodthat goals can be achieved) and values (relative importance of a goal in context of the other goals in a person's life) |
| these goal theories are often called | expectancy x value theories (interact with eachother) |
| if personality has usefulness as a construct, it has... | real, practical value and function in the real world |
| This argument about whether or not personality is useful as a construct is known as the | Person-Situation Debate, and it was started by Walter Mischel |
| Theorists who believe that the situation determines behaviors are known as | situationists |
| Pragmatism emphasizes the | practical usefulness of constructs such as personality. In other words, does the concept of personality buy us anything in terms of real-world use? |
| Scientific models are | representations of reality, but are not intended to completely replicate reality |
| scientific models are...meaning that they are... | in simulacra...simplified versions of reality |
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