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Psychology 3 Chapter
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| The Theory of Evolution | Darwin emphasized the adaptive value of behavior and physical characteristics to specific environments (natural selection, fitness, or reproductive success, inclusive fitness). |
| Evolutionary Theory | Highlights three phases of the lifespan: Healthy growth and development leading up to the reproductive period. Success in mating and the conception of offspring. Parenting offspring so they can survive and bear their own offspring. |
| Psychosocial Evolution | The process through which human beings influence their own adaptation. |
| Psychosexual Theory | Children move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. Healthy personality development is determined by how parents manage their child’s early sexual and aggressive drives. |
| Psychosexual Theory cont... | Focus is on how individuals resolve conflicts between drives. |
| Psychosexual Theory: Motivation and Behavior | Freud believed that all behaviors were motivated. Area of the mind, called the unconscious, stores powerful, primitive motives.Drives, or libido, are the sexual and aggressive forces that desire to be satisfied. |
| Psychosexual Theory: Three Structures of Personality | Id, Ego, and Superego. The relations between the id, ego, and superego determine an individual’s basic personality |
| Psychosexual Theory: Stages of Development | Oral (0 – 2) Anal (2 – 3) Phallic (4 – 6) Latent (7 – puberty) Genital (adolescence +) |
| Psychosexual Theory: Defense Mechanisms | Repression Projection Reaction formation Regression Displacement Rationalization Isolation Denial Sublimation |
| Psychosexual Theory: Implications for Human Development | Tension between interpersonal and intrapsychic demands help shape personality. Sexual impulses play an important role during childhood and in shaping adult behavior. |
| George Eman Vaillant's (1977) categorization | Defenses form a continuum related to their psychoanalytical developmental level. Valliant has 4 levels. |
| Level I | Pathological defenses (psychotic denial, delusional projection). |
| Level II | Immature defenses (fantasy, projection, passive aggression, acting out). |
| Level III | Neurotic defenses (intellectualization, reaction formation, dissociation, displacement, repression). |
| Level IV | Mature defenses (humor, sublimation, suppression, altruism, anticipation). |
| Psychosexual Theory: Links to Psychosocial Theory | Both theories are stage theories addressing qualitative changes in the self. Freud and Erikson differ in their focus on middle childhood. Psychosocial theory expands on psychosexual theory to include stages in adulthood. |
| Cognition | The process of organizing and making meaning of experience. |
| Two Cognitive Developmental Theories | Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory & Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory |
| Piaget’s Cognitive Theory | Occurs in stages as children actively manipulate and explore the environment. |
| Adaption | Leads to a balance between internal structures and information children encounter in their everyday world. |
| Scheme | An organized way of making sense of experience that changes with age. |
| Sensorimotor Stage (0-18 months) | Egocentrism, object permanence, symbolic thinking. |
| Preoperational Stage (18 months to 6 years) | Magical thinking, animism |
| Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years) | Hello conservation, Goodbye Egocentricity…for now |
| Formal Operational Stage (11 years on) | Logic and abstraction |
| Knowledge | Is created through active engagement |
| Novelty | Promotes cognitive development |
| Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory | Vygotsky is referred to as an interactionist with views that: Human development can only be understood within a social-historical framework. Cognitive development is a socially mediated process. |
| Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development | A range of tasks that the child cannot yet handle alone but can accomplish with the help of adults and more skilled peers. |
| Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory | Piaget viewed cognitive development as a universal process. Vygotsky argued that parents and peers influence learning experiences, and thus, the structure of thinking. |
| Links to Psychosocial Theory | Piaget and psychosocial theory focus on development as a result of discrepancies where each stage of development grows from the achievements of earlier stages. |
| Links to Psychosocial Theory | Vygotsky’s theory, like psychosocial theory, emphasizes the importance of culture in guiding development, and in the ongoing interaction between person and cultural context. |
| Classical Conditioning | A form of learning that involves associating a neutral stimulus that leads to a reflexive response. |
| Operant Conditioning | B.F. Skinner emphasized the role of repetition and the consequences of behavior in learning. There are two types of reinforcers - positive and negative. |
| Shaping | The gradual building up of an operant behavior. |
| Operant Conditioning: Implications for Human Development | Operant conditioning occurs throughout life. People change when operant behaviors adapt to environment contingencies. |
| Albert Bandura | Promoted social learning theory. Emphasizes learning in a social context and the role of modeling. Learning via vicarious reinforcement. Emphasizes social cognition rather than a social learning approach. |
| Social Learning Theory | Principles of social learning are thought to operate the same way throughout life. Social learning theory highlights the influence of models’ behavior in guiding the behavior of others. |
| Criticism | Operant and classical conditioning do not describe and explain what happens in a learner’s mind. |
| Edward Tolman | Stated that the learner develops a cognitive map or an internal mental representation of the learning environment. |
| Six Cognitive Dimensions of Cognitive Behaviorism | Encodings Expectancies Affects Goals and values Cognitive competencies Self-regulatory plans |
| Cognitive Behaviorism: Implications for Human Development | Through the full range of learning processes (classical and operant conditioning, observational learning), the learner acquires cognitive structures that influence subsequent learning and performance. |
| Learning Theories: Links to Psychosocial Theory | Although psychosocial theory does assume growth and change occur throughout the life span, learning theories provide explanations for the ways in which growth and change occur. |
| Cultural Theory: Basic Concepts | Emphasizes the meaning and behavior shared by a group of people, transmitted from one generation to the next (i.e., intergenerational transmission). |
| An individual’s psychological experiences are shaped through: | 1. cultural pathways 2. cultural determinism 3. enculturation |
| REMINDER: | GO BACK AND REVIEW COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUALISM & COLLECTIVISM CHART ON POWERPOINT SLIDES (TABLE 3.5) |
| Cultural Theory: Implications for Human Development | Culture and biological development interact to determine how each period of life is experienced. |
| Links to Psychosocial Theory | Cultural theory suggests that the structure, ideas, and goals of developmental pathways differ across cultures, which is in line with the views of psychosocial theory. |
| Social Role Theory | Social roles serve as a bridge between the individual and society and suggests that learning is organized around a key social function, represented by roles. |
| Social Role Theory: Three Elements of Concern | Role Enactment (the way someone acts in a role). Social Roles (the roles a person takes on). Role Expectations (the expected behavior in a role). |
| Four Dimensions of Social Roles Exist | 1. Number of roles 2. Intensity of involvement 3. Amount of time the role demands 4. Degree of structure |
| Social Role Theory: Implications for Human Development | Social roles provide consistency to life experiences and prompt new learning. Personal relationships and social groups help contribute to one’s social identity. |
| Social Role Theory: Links to Psychosocial Theory | Role relationships provide a central means through which [socialization] takes place. |
| Social Role Theory: Links to Psychosocial Theory | The [reciprocity in roles] is closely linked to the developmental crises of each psychosocial stage. |
| Systems Theory | Systems are characterized by the relationships among component parts, where the whole is more than the sum of its parts. |
| Ecological Systems Theory | Urie Bronfenbrenner’s argues that the individual develops within a multilayered system of relationships. |
| Microsystem | Interactions and roles in a given setting. |
| Mesosystem | Interrelations among two or more settings. |
| Exosystem | Settings that do not involve the person directly. |
| Macrosystem | Overall cultural setting. |
| Chronosystem | Time. |
| Developmental Systems Theory: | Emphasizes the ongoing interaction across many levels of the human organism (genetic to behavioral) within a nested structure and over time. |
| Focus... | Is on the person in the setting and the capacity for change, or plasticity, both in the person, and the context. |
| Homeostasis: | The family system is maintained by patterns of communication, including positive and negative feedback loops. |
| Interdependence: | Change in one family member is accompanied by changes in others. |
| Interventions | *at any level of the environment can affect development. |
| Systems Theory: Links to Psychosocial Theory | System and psychosocial theories both suggest that development requires an analysis of the person within context. |
| Systems Theory: Links to Psychosocial Theory | Systems theory predicts that change is not patterned and occurs through adaptive self-regulation and self-organization, whereas psychosocial theory suggests that change is patterned. |
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mr209368
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