Linguistics Exam 2
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| paragraph | largest unit of language (made up of sentences)
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| sentence | traditionally considered largest unit of language
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| syntax | correct order of the morphemes
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| morphemes | bits that make up a sentence
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| correct | acceptable to native speaker
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| lexemes | words
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| lexicon | vocabulary, least fixed of constituents of language
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| semantics | meanings carried by the words
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| phonology | study of phonemes
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| phoneme | sound essential to meaning (cat vs bat)
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| morphology | study of behavior of morphemes
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| morpheme | smallest unit of meaning, classified by function (what it does: plural) not form (what it looks like: -s); not represented by syllables (caught, stunted)
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| free morpheme | can stand freely as words
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| bound morpheme | cannot stand freely on own (ing; s; ed)
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| lexical morpheme | both the word and its altered state would be found in the dictionary (marry, marriage)
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| gramatical morpheme | change grammar of word (ing, s, ed, un-)
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| allomorph | same function has different forms (mice is plural of mouse and cats is plural of cat)
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| mice | mouse+plural
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| ran | run+past
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| final | phoneme located at end of word (wrong)
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| medial | phoneme located within word (singer)
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| initial | phoneme located at beginning of word
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| Spanish phoneme rule | can't have a cluster of consonants in 1 syllable (school, escuela)
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| phonetic | study of production and classification of human speech sounds
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| diacritics | accents, dots, change meaning of symbol
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| IPA | international phonetic alphabet/association
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| IPA | goal is to produce 1 fixed symbol for each separate sound, use symbols similar to W. European languages (Greek symbols, old English, made up/upside down letters)
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| Pulmonic air stream | flow of air produced by lungs that comes through neck and out face through organs of speech
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| organs of speech | teeth, tongue, jaw, nose
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| laryngeal-oscope | can see down windpipe
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| manners of articulation | what is done to sound
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| place of articulation | where sound is produced
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| voiced | when the vocal chords vibrate
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| voiceless | when the vocal chords don't vibrate
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| bilabial | lips
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| labiodental | lips and teeth
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| dental | teeth
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| alveolar | teeth at gum
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| palatal | hard palate
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| velar | soft palate
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| uvular | dangly part in throat
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| glottal | where air stream is closed off
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| stops | plosives
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| fricatives | constricts
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| affricates | combination of sounds
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| laterals | sides of mouth
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| grapheme | the way the sound is written in language
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| allophone | same phoneme with a different sound (ex. cockney replacement of <t> with glottal stop)
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| minimal pair | test for phoneme, 2 words that differ in one sound
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| implosive | air coming in when air released (ex. southern white speech) phonetic, not phonemic
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| shibboleth | linguistic giveaway (ex. Louisiana by natives and outsiders; Houston st. by New Yorkers and visitors; Arkansas River)
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| primary vowels | lip spreading to lip rounding
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| secondary vowels | lip rounding to lip spreading
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| meaning | content of what is being said (word, several words, sentence)
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| denotation | what something actually is, factual, dictionary definition
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| connotation | involves a speaker's attitude
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| Ferdinand Saussure | 1. sign-word/sound (winter)
2. signified-idea that a sign invokes (cold)
3. referent-thing referred to, denotation (season)
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| polysemy | 2 or more related meanings (bright-shining, intelligence)
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| homophony | 2 or more unrelated meanings (bank-river, money)
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| synonymous | 2 words that mean the exact same thing in every situation; excessive, over time one word changes meaning, rare
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| antonymous | 2 words with opposite meaning, difficult to find a true example
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| compositional semantics | combining words into sentences
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| paraphrase | 2 sentences with basically the same meaning
The police chased the burglar.
The burglar was chased by the police.
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| entailment | sentence a guarantees the truth of sentence b
a: Prince is a dog.
b: Prince is an animal.
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| contradiction | truth of a guarantees falsehood of b
a: prince is a dog.
b: prince is a human.
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| fuzzy concepts | no exact definiton (rich- no definitive line)
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| graded membership | a concept with comparative forms
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| prototypical | the most representative version of something (Bill Gates)
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| qapa | falling snow in Eskimo - concept that can be presented in English with 2 words
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| lexicalization | putting a concept into a word
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| motion words in English | encode manner and motion (stagger, swirl)
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| motion words in spanish | encode path (ascend, descend are lexical adaptions)
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| motion words in Atsugewi | encode what is moving
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| lup | Atsugewi movement of small, spherical object (hail)
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| qput | Atsugewi movement of loose, dry dirt
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| swal | Atsugewi movement of hanging linear objects (shirt on clothesline)
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| lexicalized concepts | manner, path and object of motion
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| grammaticalization | putting a concept into a functional word (past tense, plural) attached to a word, can't stand alone, alters meaning of word
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| Hidatsa | encode evidentiality (how you know)
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| -ski (Waceo iikipi kure heoski) | speaker certain of truth (considered lie if found false) "the man definitely carried the pipe"
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| -c (Waceo iikipi kure heoc) | speaker believes statement is true (considered mistake if found false) "the man supposedly carried the pipe"
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| -wareac (Waceo iikipi kure heowareac) | speaker believes this is common knowledge
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| -rahe (Waceo iikipi kure heorahe) | an unverified report from someone else
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| extralinguistic | not specifically stated but implied
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| presupposition | assumption or belief based on word choice-not explicit "Lincoln was assassinated in 1865" assassinated reveals that the person was important
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| maxim | rules
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| maxim of relevance | be relevant; ex: Party -> I have homework, on surface response seems unrelated but maxim shows that it is an excuse not to go
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| maxim of quality | make contribution true (sarcasm is a violation)
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| maxim of quantity | don't say too much or too little; ex. where you live
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| maxim of manner | avoid ambiguity/obscurity; ex. answering a question in another language
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| [b] | voiced bilabial stop; <baby>
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| [p] | voiceless bilabial stop; <paper>
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| [d̪] | voiced dental stop; <dos>
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| [t̪] | voiceless dental stop; <tú>
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| [d] | voiced alveolar stop; <do>
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| [t] | voiceless alveolar stop; <to>
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| [ɟ] | voiced palatal stop; <Magyar>
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| [g] | voiced velar stop; <give>
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| [k] | voiceless velar stop; <kiss>
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| [ʔ] | glottal stop; <uh-uh>
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| [β] | voiced bilabial fricative; <hablar>
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| [v] | voiced labiodental fricative; <very>
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| [f] | voiceless labiodental fricative; <fairy>
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| [ð] | voiced dental fricative; <these>
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| [θ] | voiceless dental fricative; <thigh>
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| [z] | voiced alveolar fricative; <zoo>
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| [s] | voiceless alveolar fricative; <sue>
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| [ʒ] | voiced palatal fricative; <leisure>
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| [ʃ] | voiceless palatal fricative; <ship>
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| [ɣ] | voiced velar fricative; <agua>
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| [x] | voiceless velar fricative; <mujer>
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| [ʁ] | voiced uvular fricative; <trois> (Fr.)
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| [χ] | voiceless uvular fricative; <Achtung!> (Ger.)
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| [h] | glottal fricative; <house>
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| [ts] | voiceless alveolar africate; <tse-tse>
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| [dʒ] | voiced palatal africate; <judge>
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| [tʃ] | voiceless palatal africate; <church>
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| [m] | bilabial nasal; <mommy>
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| [ɱ] | labiodental nasal; <information>
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| [n̪] | dental nasal; <¡No!>
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| [n] | alveolar nasal; <no>
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| [ɲ] | palatal nasal; <Español>
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| [ŋ] | velar nasal; <sing>
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| [l] | alveolar lateral; <leaf>
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| [l~] | <bottle>
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| [ʎ] | velar lateral; <castellano>
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| [r] | alveolar roll; <first>
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| [ɾ] | alveolar tap; <pero>
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| [w] | bilabial semivowel; <will>
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| [j] | palatal semivowel; <yes>
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| [i] | high front primary; <eat>
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| [e] | high mid front primary; <eight>
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| [ɛ] | low mid front primary; <bet>
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| [a] | low front primary; <la>
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| [ɑ] | low back primary; <father>
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| [ɔ] | low mid back primary; <hall>
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| [o] | high mid back primary; <boat>
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| [u] | high back primary; <tu>
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| [y] | high front secondary; <you> (southern)
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| [ɒ] | low back secondary; <not>
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| [ʌ] | mid low back secondary; <love>
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| [ə] | schwa; <America>
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| [ɜ] | nonrhotic; <first> (british)
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| [ɪ] | lax high front; <lick>
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| [ɨ but capital] | central high front; <stomach>
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| [ʊ] | tense high back; <foot>
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| [æ] | asch; <ask>
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| /au/ | now
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| /ai/ | nice
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| /ju:/ | new
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| /i:/ | knee
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| /oi/ | boy
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| /ei/ | bay
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