click below
click below
Normal Size Small Size show me how
Psych Fridlund
PSYCH FINAL FRIDLUUUUND
Question | Answer |
---|---|
geons and "impossible figures" | -geons are the basic building blocks of all objects we recognize (we first recognize objects by recognizing their component geons) |
-impossible figures are made by non-geon components | |
the stroop effect and automatization | -tendency to read the words instead of saying the color of ink |
change blindness | -the failure to detect changes in parts of a scene (while a movie is playing if they change what is on the people's plates you probably wont notice) |
attentional blink | -during a brief time after perceiving one stimulus, it is difficult to attend to something else (you don't necessarily blink your eyes, but you "blink" your attention) |
algorithms and heuristics | -algorithm- a mechanical, repetitive procedure for solving a problem or testing every hypothesis |
-heuristics- strategies for simplifying a problem and generating a satisfactory guess (i.e. to choose oldest child, you choose the tallest) | |
representativeness heuristic | -the assumption that an item that resembles members of some category is probably also in that category |
base-rate information | -how common two categories are |
-often overlooked when people apply the representativeness heuristic | |
availability heuristic | -the tendency to assume that if we easily think of examples of a category, then that category must be common |
-after a plane crash, people think flying is unsafe because it is very memorable | |
overconfidence | -on hard problems, people are generally overconfident that their answers are correct (i.e. they have a correct range that the nile river is in between) |
-on easy problems, they are often underconfident | |
confirmation bias | -the tendency to accept a hypothesis and then look for evidence to support it instead of considering other possibilities |
framing bias and "spin" | -framing bias- when the wording of a problem leads us to a decision |
-"spin"- spinning facts makes people reframe their ideas towards a certain viewpoint | |
mental rotation and map image-scanning studies | -when asked if two objects are the same (just rotated) or different, people make the judgements by imagining one of the forms spinning until the positions match |
-subjects memorize map and had to "scan" from one point to another and judge distance | |
prototype theory of meaning | -a mode of categorization where some members of a category are more central than other (this dog is more "dog-like" than the others) (this fruit is more "fruit-like" than the others) |
spreading activation | -a method for searching networks.. activation thought and then you come to your final search by associating similar things? |
natural selection | -the differential reproductive success of individuals within a population because of hereditary differences among them |
-organisms with favorable characteristics reproduce more | |
requirements for natural selection | -variability-differences among organisms/traits |
-selection pressures | |
-inheritance mechanism-use-inheritance (now we know it is genetics) | |
vestigial structures and importance to darwin | -structures that are "left-over" from previous stages in evolution (pelvis bones in whales/snakes, wings in flightless birds, human appendix, etc) |
taxis | -movement toward or against a simple stimulus |
-phototaxis (light) | |
-chemotaxis (chemicals) | |
-geotaxis (geographic locations) | |
fixed action patterns (model action patterns) and releasing stimuli | -an action that runs to completion and then may reset (example: the bird whose egg was taken, scooped it away always... when it was taken it would scoop air all the way back) |
-triggered by "releasers" | |
-yawning in humans | |
-honeybee dance | |
imprinting and critical (sensitive) periods | -triggered in critical periods (generally newborns/young) |
-if a male robin doesn't hear the song of a mature robin during the critical period, it will not be imprinted and when he goes through puberty he will not sing like a mature robin | |
-not for humans | |
neoteny | -holding on to juvenile traits as an adult |
-neoteny less in chimpanzees where their skull structure varies quite a bit from baby to adult | |
vervet monkeys and calls | -vervet monkeys are chatterboxes and have a proto-language |
-can communicate if an eagle is overhead they go under tree, if snake is near they go up tree, etc | |
personal vs inclusive fitness | -personal fitness- direct reproductive prowess |
-inclusive fitness- assistance of kin's reproduction, leads to cooperative behavior | |
--"altruism"- genetic self-interested (like the turkeys who help their brothers attract a mate) | |
equity theories or exchange | -social relationships are transactions in which partners exchange goods and services |
-wealthy attractive people are more demanding in who they want a relationship with | |
sexual dimorphism | -the systematic difference in form between individuals of different sex in the same species |
-cause of means of structural or behavioral competition | |
kinsey survey | -kinsey scale (0-6) from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual. |
-not binary anymore, reconceptualized sexual orientation | |
-46% males "reacted" sexually to both sexes | |
-37% males had at least 1 homosexual experience | |
-7% of females bisexual | |
female choice in mating | -cryptic- female ovum rejects certain sperm.. genetic key doesn't match on cell membranes |
-overt (incitement)- female choice.. female "i choose you" | |
male displays resulting from sexual selection | -rams butt heads |
-kangaroos box | |
-birds sing songs and flash their feathers, etc | |
sexual selection | -a type of natural selection in which members of one sex compete for reproductive access to members of the other sex |
research on human imprinting | -there does not seem to be any sort of imprinting stage for humans |
types of mating systems | -monogamy- pair-bonding |
-polygamy- one animal has many mates | |
--polyandry- one female mates w/ many males | |
--polygyny- one male mates w/ many females | |
-promiscuity- everyone mates w/ everyone | |
-most mating systems are slight polygyny | |
sexual orientation | -heterosexuality (90%+ of population) |
-gay males (~4% of population) | |
-lesbian females (~2% of population) | |
-bisexual male and females | |
possible determinants of sexual orientation | -females: higher exposure to prenatal androgens |
--right hand 2 :4 finger lengths are lower (more like those of straight men) | |
males: may be an X-linked trait that promotes fertility in females | |
--older biological brother raises homosexual probability 33 | |
"correlated variations" with sexual orientation | -2 :4 finger ratios (gay people have reversed ratios to straight counterparts) |
-gay people 50% likelier to be left-handed | |
-gay men likelier to have counter-clockwise hair pattern | |
evolutionary explanations of altruism | -altruism- selfless concern for others. altruism makes sense for brothers to help each other, etc, so that their genes are passed along |
rationale for sexual reproduction | -hedge against environmental change |
-no current reason for humans.. | |
-protection against pathogens (red queen hypothesis) | |
evolutionary explanation of sex roles | -in most animal kingdom, females are much bigger than males |
-one exception is in species w/ large brains (males compete for females) | |
-females make larger parental investment per gamete | |
james-lange theory of emotion | -interpretation of a stimulus evokes autonomic changes and sometimes muscle actions. perception of those changes is the feeling aspect of your emotion |
cognitive (schachter-singer) theory of emotion | -the intensity of the physiological state -- the degree of sympathetic nervous system arousal -- determines the intensity of the emotion, but a cognitive appraisal of the situation identifies the type of emotion |
how the polygraph works | -records indications of sympathetic nervous system arousal such as blood pressure, heart rate, breathing rate, and electrical conduction of the skin |
-lie detector test | |
"positive psychology" | -the study of the features that enrich life, such as happiness, hope, creativity, courage, spirituality, and responsibility |
effects of wealth on well-being | -on average, low income people report feeling happy almost as frequently as high income people |
-hard to be poor and sick and happy at the same time | |
-people in richer countries generally rate themselves happier than those in poorer countries | |
effects of crying | -no demonstrable health benefits |
-crying does not relieve tension, in fact people who cried are more likely to be depressed later on | |
epigenetic landscape (conrad waddington) | -canals of some traits, such as height |
--traits such as height and other highly genetic traits are deeply canalized | |
-traits such as outgoingness are more moldable, they are shallowly canalized | |
"nature-nurture" problem | -is a trait due to heredity (nature) or the environment (nurture)? |
-whether a trait is genetically influenced does not imply that it is fixed (non-plastic) | |
epigenetics | -"governing" genetics |
-potentially heritable information not contained in the NA sequences of the genome | |
-markers may change with age | |
identical vs fraternal twins | -identical twins develop from a single fertilized egg and have identical genes (monozygotic) |
-fraternal twins develop from two eggs and share half their genes, like any siblings (dizygotic) | |
effects of drinking and smoking during pregnancy | -if mother drinks alcohol during pregnancy, infant may develop fetal alcohol syndrome |
--stunted growth of head and body, malformations of the face, heart, and ears, nervous system damage, mental retardation, etc | |
capabilities of newborns | -time born babies have "core knowledge" about objects and physics of objects |
-can distinguish human faces from all other objects | |
-can imitate | |
cross-sectional vs longitudinal studies | -a cross-sectional study compares groups of individuals of different ages at the same time |
-in a longitudinal study one group of subjects is studied repeatedly as the members grow older | |
cohort effects | -a cohort is a group of people born at a particular time or a group of people who enter an organization at a particular time |
-cohort effects are the effects that this has on that group of people | |
schemas (piaget) | -a schema is an organized way of interacting with objects |
-i.e. infants have a grasping schema and a sucking schema | |
-piaget thought children had 4 major stages of development | |
--sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operations | |
assimilation | -applying an old schema to new objects or problems |
-i.e. a child who observes that animals move on their own may believe that the sun and move, which also seem to move, must also be alive | |
accommodation | -modifying an old schema to fit a new object or problem |
-i.e. a child learns that "only living things move on their own" is a rule with exceptions that the sun and moon are not alive | |
object permanence and how it's measured | -object permanence is the idea that objects continue to exist even when we do not see or hear them |
-place toy in front of infant, he'll grab it | |
-place toy in front of infant with clear glass, he'll move glass and grab it | |
-if child cant see it, wont gra | |
conservation of number, volume, mass | -children fail to understand that objects conserve such properties as number, length, volume, area, and mass after changes in the shape or arrangement of the objects |
-i.e. pour water into a taller, thinner glass, child thinks taller glass has more water | |
erikson's social development model (general concept, not specific stages) | -divided human life span into eight stages |
-at each stage, people have specific tasks to master, and each stage generates its own social and emotional conflicts | |
-mistakes at one stage may carry over and have unfortunate consequences at later stages | |
key issues in adolescence, midlife, and old age | -adolescent- identity versus role confusion |
-midlife-generativity versus stagnation | |
-old age- ego integrity versus dispair | |
parenting styles and effects | -authoritative- parents have high standards and control, warm and responsive to child's communication |
-authoritarian- firm controls, emotionally distant | |
-permissive- warm+loving, but undemanding | |
-indifferent/uninvolved- spend little time, basic needs | |
stockholme syndrome | -a phenomenon where hostages have positive feelings toward their captors that appear irrational in light of the danger or risk endured by the victims |
-mistake lack of abuse from captors as an act of kindness | |
effects of abuse on attachment and resilience | -abuse by caretaker leads to greater attachment |
-children tend to cling to abusive parents | |
effects of divorce on children | -regression (clinginess, thumb-sucking, bed-wetting) in young |
-reunion fantasies, headaches/stomaches, guilt about divorce, anger/powerlessness, labeling parents as "good" vs "bad" | |
-depression, acting out, suicidal ideation, withdrawl, pseudo-independen | |
primacy effects on social impressions | -the primacy effect is the fact that the first information we learn about someone influences us more than later information does |
-first impression is lasting | |
methods of assessing prejudice | -implicit association test (IAT)- measures reactions to combinations of categories, such as flowers and pleasant |
results of implicit association test | -in white college students |
--most responded to the combos black/unpleasant and white/pleasant, even though they claimed to haqve no racial prejudice | |
-implicit preference of white people toward other whites | |
internal vs external attributions | -internal attributions- explanations based on someone's individual characteristics, such as attitudes, personality traits, or abilities |
-external attributions- explanations based on the situation, including events that presumably influence nearly everyon | |
internal vs external attributions examples | -internal- walked to work today "because you like the exercise" |
-external- walked to work today "because your car wouldn't start" | |
"fundamental attribution error" and culture | -to make internal attributions for people's behavior when we see evidence for an external influence on behavior |
-a tendency to assume a strong similarity between someone's current actions and his or her dispositions | |
actor-observer effect | -people are more likely to make internal attributions for other people's behavior and more likely to make external attributions for their own |
-you are an "actor" when you try to explain your own behavior and an "observer" when you explain someone elses | |
culture differences in attribution | -people of western cultures rely more on internal attributions in situations (fish is leading the other fish) |
-people in China and other asian countries tend to make more external attributions (other fish are chasing the fish) | |
self-serving attributional bias | -attributions that we adopt to maximize credit for success and minimize blame for failure |
-good grade result of hard work and intelligence | |
-bad grade result of unfair test | |
self-handicapping strategies | -when people intentionally put themselves at a disadvantage to provide an excuse for failure |
-if you think you are going to do bad on a test, you go to a party the night before so now you can blame your low score on your lack of sleep | |
factors affecting persuasiveness of messages | -central route- when people take adecision seriously, they evaluate the evidence and logic behind each message |
-peripheral- when people listen to a message on an unimportant topic they attend to more superficial factors such as appearance/reputation | |
salesmanship techniques | |
"foot-in-the-door" | |
"door-in-the-face" | |
"bait-and-switch" | |
"that's-not-all" | -foot in door- start w/ modest request, follow with a larger request |
-door in face- start w/ large request, increase chance second smaller request will be agreed | |
-bait and switch- first offer extremely favorable deal, then make additional demands | |
"that's-not-all" | -someone makes an offer and then improves the offer before you have a chance to reply |
cognitive dissonance | -a state of unpleasant tension that people experience when they hold contradictory attitudes or when their behavior contradicts their stated attitudes, especially if the inconsistency distresses them |
cognitive dissonance example | -experience negative feeling (dissonance) |
-need to reduce that negative feeling | |
--attitude want to do well on final, behavior party/play beer pong | |
--to reduce dissonance: change behavior, change attitude, or adopt new attitude | |
factors promoting friendship | -proximity and familiarity |
-physical attractiveness | |
-similarity | |
biology and physical attractiveness | -"normal" is attractive |
-healthy and fertile people are more likely to be "attractive" | |
-many illnesses decrease people's attractiveness | |
characteristics of successful marriages | -not living together before marriage |
-no signs of contempt (rolling eyes or sarcasm) especially in early stages of marriage | |
asch's conformity studies | -showed group a model bar, asked which bar was same length |
-actual participant was only 1 person in group, second to last | |
-37/50 participants conformed to the majority at least once, 14 conformed on most of the trials | |
-people conform a lot | |
diffusion of responsibility | -if there is a chain of command, people feel less responsible for their actions |
-person taking orders "is just taking orders" | |
-person giving orders "is just giving orders", not actually doing the dirty work | |
social loafing | -the phenomenon of people making less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when they work alone |
group polarization | -if nearly all the people who compose a group lean in the same direction on a particular issue, then a group discussion will move the group as a whole even further in that direction |
groupthink | -an extreme form of group polarization |
-when the members of a group suppress their doubts about a group's decision for fear of making a bad impression or disrupting group harmony | |
basic setup of prisoner's dilemma and use | -you and a friend charged for a crime |
-best outcome is both stay quiet | |
-but will the other person confess? | |
milgram obedience study & results | -people were put in front of a zapping machine that they were told would zap someone if the person answered a question wrong |
-of 40 participants, 25 delivered shocks all the way to 450 volts | |
-people from all walks of life obeyed the experimenter's order | |
stanford prison experiment - basic results | -24 people, half guards half prisoners |
-randomly chose who went into each group | |
-the guards treated the prisoner's horribly, making them do awful things | |
-experiment was cut short after 6 days | |
-guards forced prisoners to do unusual things | |
factors promoting obedience | -diffusion of responsibility |
-situational | |
kohlberg's view of moral development (general principle only) | -adaptation of piaget's theory |
-moral reasoning, the basis for ethical behavior, has 6 identifiable developmental stages, each more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than its predecessor | |
-pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional stag | |
problems with kohlberg's view | -emphasizes justice to the exclusion of other values |
-overly androcentric | |
-not culturally neutral | |
ways to reduce prejudice | -subordinate (cooperative) goals |
-once people are on the same team trying to accomplish goals that benefit both parties, they will be nicer to each other | |
structured personality testing | -MMPI |
-ask people questions and based on their answers sort them into different personality categories | |
MMPI | -minnesota multiphasic personality inventory |
-consists of true-false questions intended to measure certain personality dimensions and clinical conditions | |
-empirically devised (based on evidence rather than theory) | |
type A behavior pattern | -chronic sense of time urgency |
-competitive achieving | |
-sense of personal mission | |
-self-imposed deadlines | |
-high pace in mental/physical activities | |
-aggression and hostility | |
-often more successful | |
cattell's personality research | -16 personality factors (16 PF test) |
-if people used words as synonyms, his factor analysis got rid of redundancies, ended up w/ 16 words | |
rorschach inkblot procedure | -show people a big blog of ink... ask them what they saw |
-depending on what they saw it said something about their personality | |
projective testing w/ rationale | -draw-a-person, draw-a-tree.. |
-roschach inkblots | |
-TAT | |
TAT | -thematic apperception test |
-when shown a picture, come up with a story of what happened before, during, and after the picture | |
-depending on the story you told, it tells something about your personality | |
trait theories - eysenck | -eysenck-2 personality dimensions |
--extraversion vs introversion | |
--neuroticism (emotionally reactive) vs stability | |
--placed them on a cross plane (graph) | |
trait theories - big five | -norman's big five |
-CANOE/OCEAN | |
-conscientiousness | |
-agreeableness | |
-neuroticism | |
-openness to experience | |
-extroversion | |
psychodynamic personality theories | -a theory that relates personality to the interplay of conflicting forces within the individual, including the unconscious ones |
-forces that we do not understand push us and pull us | |
psychoanalysis | -freud's method of explaining and dealing with personality based on the interplay of conscious and unconscious forces |
-freud's tool to understanding the unconscious | |
-bring memories from the unconscious to the conscious producing catharsis to overcome | |
catharsis | -a release of pent-up emotional tension |
-talking is healing | |
the unconscious | the repository of memories, emotions, and thoughts, many of them illogical, that affect our behavior even though we cannot talk about them |
-traumatic experiences and unresolved childhood conflicts force thoughts and emotions into the unconscious | |
oedipus complex | -according to freud, during childhood every boy goes through this |
-when he develops a sexual interest in his mother and competitive aggression toward his father | |
-he had no evidence... | |
stages of psychosexual development | -oral stage (sucking, swallowing, biting) |
-anal stage (expelling feces, retaining feces) | |
-phallic stage (touching penis or clitoris; oedipus complex) | |
-latent period (sexual interests suppressed) | |
-genital stage (sexual contact w/ other people) | |
components of personality (ego, id) | -ego-both conscious and unconscious, operates on reality principle (rational, decision making) |
-id-purely unconscious, operates on pleasure principle (operates on sexual and biological drives) | |
components of personality (superego) | -superego- both conscious and unconscious, operates on ideals (memory of rules and prohibitions we learned from our parents and others) |
-"nice little boys and girls don't do that" | |
defense mechanisms (know types) | -the ego defends itself against anxieties by relegating unpleasant thoughts and impulses to the unconscious mind |
-repression- motivated forgetting | |
-denial- refusal to believe information that provokes anxiety | |
defense mechanisms (know types) | -rationalization- when people attempt to prove that their actions are rational and justifiable and thus worthy of approval |
-displacement- lets people engage in behavior w/ less anxiety by diverting a behavior or thought away from its natural target towar | |
defense mechanisms (know types) | -regression- a return to a more immature level of functioning |
-projection- attributing one's own undesirable characteristics to other people | |
-reaction formation- present themselves as the opposite of what they really are to hide the unpleasant truth | |
defense mechanisms (know types) | -sublimation- the transformation of sexual or aggressive energies into culturally acceptable, even admirable, behaviors |
overall evidence on validity of freud's psychoanalysis | -not much evidence at all |
-most of his observations are very speculative | |
jung's collective unconscious and archetypes | -early member of freud's inner circle (neo-freudian) |
-collective unconscious is present at birth and pertains to the cumulative experience of preceding generations | |
-archetypes- vague images that have always been part of the human experience | |
adler and "social interest" | -early associate of freud but parted with him when freud overemphasized sex drive |
-social interest- a sense of solidarity and identification with other people | |
--an interest in the welfare of society | |
--want to cooperate, not compete | |
tryon's behavior-genetics study | -raised maze-bright and maze-dull rats |
-after seven generations he breeded the best and worst maze rats with others of similar abilities | |
-the differences were clearly genetic | |
continuous vs stage theories | -stage developmental process involves distinct stages which are characterized by qualitative differences in behavior |
--piaget, erkson, freud, etc | |
-continuous development involves gradual and ongoing changes throughout the lifespan | |
personality and criminal profiling | -assuming people who commit similar crimes have similar personalities or backgrounds |
-research shows that criminal profiling is not very useful | |
heredity and personality | -heredity can influence personality |
-certain genes are linked to neuroticism (anxiety-proneness) | |
kinsey and klein scales | -kinsey scale 0-6 (exclusively homo to exclusively hetero) |
-klein scale looks not just at present behavior, but also previous (entire life span -- past, present, ideal) | |
signs and symptoms of common mental disorders | -mood |
--depression, bi-polar | |
-anxiety | |
--ocd, post-traumatic stress disorder | |
-mania | |
-anxiety | |
-OC | |
-A H | |
basics of treatment for depression, mania, anxiety, ocd, shizophrenia, adhd | -depression- psychotherapy or medication, sometimes ECT shock therapy |
-mania- medication only, inhibit pkc | |
-anxiety- addictive GABA reducing drugs, exposure therapy (systematic desensitization, relaxation therapy) | |
-ocd- seratonin medication | |
-adhd- dru | |
brain changes in shizophrenia, adhd | -shizophrenia- high dopamine activity |
-adhd- low levels of dopamine and norepinephrine |