AP Psych Learning and Development unit
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| Developmental Psychology | The study of how people grow and change physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally over their lifespan.
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| Chronological Development | The measurement of age based on time from birth.
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| Lifespan Development | The study of growth and change from conception to death.
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| Stability and Change | The debate on which traits persist and which change throughout life.
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| Nature and Nurture | The debate over whether genetics (nature) or environment (nurture) plays a larger role in development.
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| Continuous Development | The idea that development is a gradual, cumulative process.
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| Discontinuous Development | The idea that development occurs in distinct stages.
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| Menopause | The end of menstruation and reproductive ability in women, typically occurring in middle age.
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| Sex | Biological differences between males and females.
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| Gender | Social and cultural roles, behaviors, and identity associated with being male or female.
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| Socialization | The process of learning norms, values, and behaviors appropriate to society.
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| Schemas | Mental frameworks that help organize and interpret information.
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| Assimilation | Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.
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| Accommodation | Adjusting schemas to fit new experiences.
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| Sensorimotor Stage | Piaget’s first stage (birth-2 years) where infants learn through sensory experiences and motor activities.
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| Object Permanence | Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible.
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| Preoperational Stage | Piaget’s second stage (2-7 years) where children use symbols and language but lack logical reasoning.
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| Mental Symbols | Internal representations of objects and events that allow for thought without direct interaction.
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| Pretend Play | Symbolic play where children act out roles and scenarios using imagination.
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| Conservation | Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or arrangement.
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| Reversibility | Understanding that actions can be undone or reversed.
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| Animism | The belief that inanimate objects have human-like qualities.
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| Egocentrism | The inability to see the world from another person’s perspective.
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| Theory of Mind | Understanding that others have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives different from one's own.
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| Concrete Operational Stage | Piaget’s third stage (7-11 years) where children develop logical thinking but struggle with abstract ideas.
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| Systematic Thinking | Logical and organized problem-solving skills.
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| Formal Operational Stage | Piaget’s fourth stage (12+ years) where abstract and hypothetical thinking develops.
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| Abstract Thinking | The ability to think about complex concepts beyond direct experience.
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| Hypothetical Thinking | Thinking about possibilities and situations that are not grounded in reality.
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| Scaffolding | Vygotsky’s concept of providing temporary support to help a learner master a task.
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| Zone of Proximal Development | The range between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help.
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| Crystallized Intelligence | Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills that increase with age.
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| Fluid Intelligence | The ability to think abstractly and solve novel problems, which declines with age.
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| Dementia | A decline in cognitive function severe enough to interfere with daily life.
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| Language | A system of communication using symbols, sounds, and grammar.
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| Phonemes | The smallest units of sound in language.
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| Morphemes | The smallest units of meaning in language.
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| Semantics | The meaning of words and language.
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| Grammar | Rules for structuring sentences and words in a language.
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| Syntax | The arrangement of words to form meaningful sentences.
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| Nonverbal Gestures | Movements and facial expressions that communicate meaning.
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| Cooing | Early vowel-like sounds made by infants.
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| Babbling | Repetitive consonant-vowel sounds made by infants.
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| One-Word Stage | Stage in language development where toddlers use single words to express whole ideas.
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| Telegraphic Speech | Early speech stage in which toddlers use short, simple sentences without unnecessary words.
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| Overgeneralization of Language Rules | Applying language rules too broadly, such as saying “goed” instead of “went.”
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| Ecological Systems Theory | Bronfenbrenner’s theory that development is influenced by different levels of environmental systems.
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| Microsystem | The immediate environment influencing an individual (e.g., family, school).
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| Mesosystem | Connections between different microsystems (e.g., interaction between home and school).
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| Exosystem | External settings that affect an individual indirectly (e.g., parents’ workplace).
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| Macrosystem | Broader cultural values and societal influences.
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| Chronosystem | How life events and historical contexts impact development.
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| Stage Theory of Psychosocial Development (Erikson) | A theory of eight stages of personality development across the lifespan.
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| Trust vs. Mistrust | Infants learn to trust caregivers or develop mistrust (0-1 year).
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| Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt | Toddlers develop independence or doubt their abilities (1-3 years).
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| Initiative vs. Guilt | Children take initiative in activities or feel guilt for being independent (3-6 years).
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| Industry vs. Inferiority | Children develop pride in accomplishments or feel inferior (6-12 years).
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| Identity vs. Role Confusion | Adolescents explore personal identity or feel confused about who they are (12-18 years).
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| Intimacy vs. Isolation | Young adults form relationships or experience loneliness (20s-40s).
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| Generativity vs. Stagnation | Adults contribute to society or feel a lack of purpose (40s-60s).
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| Integrity vs. Despair | Older adults reflect on life with satisfaction or regret (60+ years).
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| Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) | Traumatic events during childhood that impact lifelong health and well-being.
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| Achievement (Adolescent Development) | Commitment to an identity after exploring options.
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| Diffusion (Adolescent Development) | Lack of commitment or exploration of identity.
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| Foreclosure (Adolescent Development) | Commitment to an identity without exploration.
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| Moratorium (Adolescent Development) | Actively exploring identity without commitment.
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| Racial/Ethnic Identity | Sense of belonging to a racial or ethnic group.
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| Sexual Orientation | Enduring patterns of emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction.
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| Religious Identity | Sense of belonging to a religious group.
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| Occupational Identity | Understanding of one’s career aspirations and goals.
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| Familial Identity | Sense of self in relation to one’s family.
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| Possible Selves | Concepts of what one might become in the future.
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| Behavioral Perspective | Psychological approach focusing on observable behaviors and learning.
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| Classical Conditioning | Learning through association between stimuli.
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| Association | Linking two stimuli together.
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| Acquisition | Initial stage of learning in classical or operant conditioning.
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| Associative Learning | Learning that certain events occur together.
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| Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) | A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.
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| Unconditioned Response (UCR) | A natural reaction to the UCS.
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| Conditioned Stimulus (CS) | A previously neutral stimulus that, after conditioning, triggers a response.
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| Conditioned Response (CR) | A learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
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| Extinction | The disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
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| Spontaneous Recovery | The reappearance of a conditioned response after a pause.
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| Stimulus Discrimination | Learning to respond only to a specific stimulus.
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| Stimulus Generalization | Responding similarly to similar stimuli.
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| Higher-Order Conditioning | When a new neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an existing conditioned stimulus.
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| Counterconditioning | Replacing an undesired response with a desirable one through conditioning.
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| Taste Aversion | A learned avoidance of a particular food due to illness or nausea.
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| One-Trial Conditioning | Learning that occurs after a single pairing of a stimulus and response.
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| Biological Preparedness | Innate tendencies to form certain associations more easily.
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| One-Trial Learning | Learning that occurs immediately after one exposure.
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| Habituation | A decrease in response to a repeated stimulus over time.
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| Operant Conditioning | Learning based on consequences of behavior.
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| Reinforcement | A stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.
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| Punishment | A stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.
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| Law of Effect | Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, and behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened.
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| Instinctive Drift | Tendency for animals to revert to instinctual behaviors despite conditioning.
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| Superstitious Behavior | Behavior that is accidentally reinforced, leading to repeated actions.
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| Learned Helplessness | Feeling powerless due to repeated negative experiences.
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| Reinforcement Schedules | Patterns of reinforcement delivery.
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| Social Learning Theory | Learning through observation and imitation.
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| Vicarious Conditioning | Learning by watching others be rewarded or punished.
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| Modeling | Imitating others’ behaviors.
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| Insight Learning | Sudden realization of a solution to a problem.
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| Latent Learning | Learning that occurs but is not immediately demonstrated.
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| Cognitive Maps | Mental representations of spatial environments.
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