Chapter 1
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| Psychology | The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
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| Structuralism | Early school of psychology that emphaxized studying the most basic components of conscious experiences.
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| Functionalism | Early school of psychology that emphasized studying the purpose of behavior and mental experiences.
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| Psychoanalysis | Personality theory and form of psychotherapy that emphasize the role of unconscious factors in personality and behavior
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| Behaviorism | School of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasize the study of observable behaviors as they pertain to the process of learning
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| Humanistic Psychology | School of psychologoy oand theoretical viewpoint that emphasize each person's
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| Neuroscience | The study of the nervous system, especially the brain
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| Positive psychology | The study of positive emotions and psychological states, positive individual trais, and social institutions that foster positive individuals and communities
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| Evolutionary psychology | The application of principles of evolution, including natural selection, to explain psychological processes and phenomena
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| Culture | The attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of people and communicated from one generation to another
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| Cross-cultural psychology | Branch of psychology that studies the effects of culture on behavior and mental processes
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| Ethnocentrism | The belief that one's own culture or ethnic group is superior to all others, and the related tendency to use one's own culture as a standard by which to judge other cultures
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| Individualistic cultures | Cultures that emphasize the needs and goals of the individual over the needs and goals of the group
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| Collectivistic cultures | Cultures that emphasize the needs and goals of the group over the needs and goals of the individual
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| Collectivistic Cultures | Cultures that emphasize the needs and goals of the g roup over the needs and goals of the individual
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| Psychiatry | Medical specialty area focused on the diagnosis, treatment, causes, and prevention of mental and behavioral disorders
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| Scientific method | A set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide researchers in creating questions to investigate, in generating evidence, and in drawing conclusions
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| Empirical Evidence | Verifiable evidence that is based upon objective observation, measurement, and/or experimentation
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| Hypothesis | A tentative statement abaout the relationship between two or more variables; a testable prediction or question
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| Variable | A factor that can vary, or change, in ways that can be bserved, measured, and verified
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| Operational definition | A precise description of how the variabales in a study will be manipulated or measured
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| Critical thinking | The active process of minimizing preconceptions and biases while evaluating evidence, determining the conclusions that can reasonable be drawn from evidence, and considering alternative explanations for research findings or other phenomena
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| Statistics | A branch of mathematics used by researchers to organize, summarize, and interpret data
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| Statistically significant | A mathhematical indication that research results are not very likely to have occured by chance
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| Meta-analysis | A statistical technique that involves combining and analyzing the results of many research studies on a specific topic in order to identify overall trends
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| Replicate | To repeat or duplicate a scientific study in order to increase confidence in the validity of the original findings
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| Theory | A tentative explanation that tries to integrate and account for the relationship of various findings and observations
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| Descriptive research methods | Scientific procedures that involve systematically observing behavior in order to describe the relationship among behaviors and events
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| Naturalistic observation | The systematic observation and recording of behaviors as they occur in their natural setting
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| pseudoscience | A fake or false science that makes claims based on little or no scientific evidence
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| Case study | An intensive study of a single individual or small group of individuals
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| Survey | A questionnaire or interview designed to investigate the opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a particular group
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| Sample | A selected segment of the population used to represent the group that is being studied
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| Representative sample | A selected segment that very closely parallels the larger population being studied on relevant characteristics
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| Random selection | Process in which subjects are selected randomly from a larger group such that every group member has an equal chance of being included in the study
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| Correlational study | A research strategy that allows the precise calculation of how strongly related two factors are to each other
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| Correlation coefficient | A merical indication of the magnitude and direction of the relationship between two variables
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| Positive correlation | A finding that two factors vary systematically in the same direction, increasing or decreasing together
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| Negative correlation | A finding that two factors vary systematically in opposite directions, one increasing as the other decreases
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| Experimental method | A method of investigatin used to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships by purposely manipulating one faactor thought to produce change in another factor
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| Independent variable | The purposely manipulated factor thought to produce change in an experiment; also called the treatment variable
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| Dependent variable | The factor that is observed and measured for change in an experiment; thought to be influenced by the independent variable; also called the outcome variable
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| Extraneous variable | A factor or variable other than the ones being studied that, if not controlled, could affect the outcome of an experiment; also called a confounding variable
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| Experimental group (experimental condition) | In an experiment, the group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions, including the independent variable
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| Placebo | A fake substance, treatment, or procedure that has no known direct effects
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| Placebo effect | Any change attributed to a person's beliefs and expectations rather than an actual drug, treatment, or procedure; also called expectancy effect
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| Random assignment | The process of assigning participants to experimental conditions so that all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to any of the conditions or groups in the study
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| Double-blind technique | An experimental control in which neither the participants nor the researchers interacting with the participants are aware of the group or condition to which the participants have been assigned
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| Demand characteristics | In a research study, subtle cues or signals expressed by the researcher that commmunicate the kind of response or behavior that is expected from the participant
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| Practice effect | Any change in performance that results from mere repetition of a task
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| Main effect | Any change that can be directly attributed to the independent or treatment variable after controlling for other possible influences
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| Control group (control condition) | In an experiment, the group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions, except the independent variable; the group against which changes in the experimental group are compared
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| Natural experiment | A study investigating the effects of a naturally occurring event on the research participants
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| Positron emission tomography (PET Scan) | An invasive imagaing technique that provides color-coded images of brain activity by trackingthe brain's use of a radioacively tagged compound, such as glucose, oxygen, or a drug
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| Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) | A noninvasive imaging technique that produces highly detailed images of the body's structures and tissues using electromagnetic signals generated by teh body in response to magnetic fields
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| Functional magnetic resonanace imaging (fMRI) | A noninvasive imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to map brain activity by measuring changes in the brain's blood flow and oxygen levels
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| Comparitive psychology | Branch of psychology that studies the behavior or different animal species
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| Mary Whiton Calkins | American psychologist who conducted research on memory, personality, and dreams; established one of the first U.S. psychology research laboratories; first woman president of the American Psychological Association
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| Charles Darwin | English naturalist and scientist whose theory of evolution through natural selection was first published in On the Origin of Species in 1859
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| Sigmund Freud | Austrian physician and founder of psychoanalysis
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| G. Stanley Hall | American psychologist who estaablished the first psychology research laoratory in the United States; founded the American Psychological Association
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| William James | American philosopher and psychologist who founded psychology in the United States and estaablished the psychological school called functionalism
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| Abraham Maslow | American, humanistic psychologist who developed a theory of motivation
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| Ivan Pavlov | Russian physiologist whose pioneering research on learning contributed to the development of behaviorism; discovered the basic learning process that is now called classical conditioning
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| Carl Rogers | American psychologist who founded the school of humanistic psychology
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| B. F. Skinner | American psychologist and leading proponent of behaviorism; developed a model of learning called operant conditioning; emphasized studying the relationship between environmental factors and observable behavior
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| Francis C Sumner | American psychologist who was the first African American to receive a doctorate in psychology in the United States; chaired Howard University psychology department
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| Edward B Titchener | `British-born American psychologist who founded structuralism, the first school of psychology
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| Margaret Floy Washburn | American psychologist who was the first woman to earn a doctorate in psychology in the United States; published research on mental processes in animals
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| John B Watson | American psychologist who founded behaviorism, emphasizing the study of observable behavior and rejecting the study of mental processes
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| Wilhelm Wundt | German physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879
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| School/approach that studies how behavior and mental processes allow organisms to adapt to their environments | Functionalism
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| Founder of Functionalism | William James
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| School/approach that emphasizes each person's unique potential for psychological growth and self-directedness | Humanistic Psychology
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| Founder of Humanistic Psychology | Carl Rogers
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| School/approach that focuses on the elements of conscious experiences, using the method of introspection | Structuralism
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| Founder of Structuralism | Edward Titchener
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| School/approach that teaches human behavior is strongly influenced by unconscious sexual and aggressive conflicts | Psychoanalysis
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| Founder of Psychoanalysis | Sigmund Freud
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| School/approach that teaches psychology should scientifically investigate observable behaviors that can be measured objectively and should not study consciousness or mental processes | Behaviorism
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| Founder of Behaviorism | John Watson
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| I study brain development in infants. What is my perspective and specialty? | Biological perspective; specialty is developmental psychology
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| I compare problem-solving strategies in the United States and China. What is my perspective and specialty? | Cross-cultural perspective; specialty is cognitive psychology
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| I develop progrsms to help people modify unhealthy eating habits,focusing on the environmental cues that trigger overeating. What is my perspective and specialty? | Behavioral perspective; specialty is health psychology
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| I investigate the early life experiences of people who seek psychotherapy for symptoms of depression. What is my perspective and specialty? | Psychodynamic perspective; specialty is clinical psychology
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| I compare mate selection patterns in primitive and modern societies. What is my perspective and specialty? | Evolutionary perspective; specialty is social psychology
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| I am currently studying the role that forgiveness plays in family relationships. I want to examine the extent to which forgiveness fosters the development of a healthy family environment and positive individual traits.What is my perspective and specialty? | Positive psychology perspective; specialty is counseling psychology or developmental psychology
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| A psychologist discovers that as negative life events increase, episodes of depression also increase. The psychologist concludes that there is a _________________ between negative life events and episodes of depression. | Positive correlation
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| A psychologist is interested in what hospital staff members say about their patients in public. His research assistants spend 4 hrs riding elevators in various hospitals and unobtrusively recording the public conversations. This psychologist is using ____ | Naturalistic observation
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| A psychologist is using police reports and weather reports to determine whether there is any relationship between the frequency of arrests for aggressive behavior and the temperature. She is using _____________ to study this relationship. | Correlational research
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| Researchers have found that the more credit cards people have, the less money they tend to have in their savings accounts. These researchers have discovered a ______________ between the number of credit cards and the amount of savings | Negative correlation
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| Dr. Romano conducts an in-depth interview and gives extensive psychological tests to an individual who claims to have been abducted by aliens. Dr. Romano is using ______________ in this investigation. | The case study method
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| All participants had an equal chance of being assigned to one of the different experimental conditions in both the ginkgo and hotel experiments. The hotel experiment used was _____________ | Random assignment
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| Fake capsules that were identical in appearance to the actual ginkgo biloba capsules. The hotel experiment used was __________ | Placebo
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| Neither the participants nor the researchers who interacted with the participants knew who received the real versus the fake ginkgo bilboa. The hotel experiment used was ________ | Double-blind technique
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| Being informed that housekeeping tasks were good exercise. The hotel experiment used was _____________ | Independent variable
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| Weight, blood pressure, body mass index, and other physical health measures of the hotel housekeeping staff. the hotel experiment used was _____________ | Dependent variable
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| The improvement that occurred from simply having taken the tests of memory, concentration, and mental focus twice. The hotel experiment used was ____________ | Practice effect
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| The physical changes that could be directly attributed to being told that housekeeping tasks provided healthy exercise. The hotel experiment used was _____________ | Main effect
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| If several participants in the hotel experiment control group had lost weight due to a contagious intestinal virus. The hotel experiment used was ___________ | Extraneous variable
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| The participants who were not told that housekeeping tasks provide healthy exercise. The hotel experiment used was ____________ | Control group
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