Subdomains: Sleep/Memory, Emotions & Stress, Endocrine Disorders
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| What major structures are associated with memory? | Mammillary bodies, basal ganglia, cerebellum, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, supplementary motor area, thalamus
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| Who is patient H.M.? | He had his hippocampus, amygdala and medial temporal lobe removed. After surgery. his short-term and procedural memory was intact but his ability to form new declarative memories and remote episodic memory was diminished.
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| What are the different types of long-term memory? | Explicit : conscious, intentional recollection
↳ Episodic: Experienced events
↳ Semantic: Knowledge & concepts
↳ Declarative: Facts & events
Implicit: unconscious and includes procedural
↳ Procedural: Skills & actions
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| How have discoveries about neural mechanisms and memory been made? | ➤Research conducted by Kandel and colleagues on sea slugs (Aplysia) which revealed that short-term storage of info = ↑ of serotonin release while long-term storage developed new synapses and changes in existing neurons.
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| What is long-term potentiation and what is the relationship to memory research? | ➤ Process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation and is linked to learning & memory
➤ LTP in animals and humans was first observed in glutamate receptors in the hippocampus
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| What is the relationship between memory and RNA synthesis? | RNA - necessary for protein synthesis
Research has found that drugs that inhibit RNA around the time of training prevents the formation of long-term (but not short-term) memories.
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| Which areas are most responsible for implicit memories? | Cerebellum, basal ganglia & supplementary motor cortex
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| What is prospective memory? | Prospective memory: remembering to perform a planned action or recall an intention at some future point in time.
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| What are the types of prospective memory and the brain area that affects it? | Event based: remembering to do an intended action when triggered by external cue
Time-based: remembering an intended action at a certain time without external cue
Brain area associated: prefrontal cortex impacts event based memory more than time-based
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| What is the first systems in LeDoux's Theory of fear? | ➤ Subcortical (survival) system: reacts quickly/automatically to sensory info with physiological, defensive responses. Amygdala - major component of this system
➤ Low Road
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| What is the second systems in LeDoux's Theory of fear? | ➤ Cortical (conscious emotional) system: Processes info from senses, subcortical system and episodic/semantic memory using cognitive processes and creates conscious feeling of fear when it determines that stimulus is actually a threat.
➤ High road
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| What brain areas are involved in the cortical system of LeDoux's Two-System Theory? | Areas that process sensory information (eg: visual cortex) and areas involved in non-emotional conscious experiences (eg: prefrontal cortex and parietal cortex)
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| What is Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome? | The body's response to all types of stress is the same and involves 3 stages
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| What are the 3 stages to Selye's GAS? | Alarm Reaction: ↑ activity in sympathetic NS provides energy to respond to stress with fight/flight reaction
Resistance: If stress persists, some functions become normal while cortisol remains ↑ to cope with stress
Exhaustion: physiological breakdown
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| What are the criticisms of the GAS? | Research has found that physiological, psychological and behavioral responses to stress are not always the same and are affected by the type of stress amd a person's genetic makeup/previous experiences.
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| What is McEwen's Allostatic Load Model | Assumes that the brain = key stress organ and determines what is threatening/stressful and the physiological/behavioral responses.
Amygdala, hippocampus & prefrontal cortex = mediators of these functions
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| What terms does McEwen use to describe the body's response to stress? | Allostasis→allostatic state→allostatic load→allostatic overload
Consequences of allostatic load vary due to genetic makeup, resilience, perceptions about controllability of stressor
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| What are the processes in the Allostatic Load Model? | Allostasis=processes that allow body to have stability by adapting to change→allostatic state that can be maintained for limited time. Extended allostatic state=wear and tear on body and brain (allostatic load)→allostatic overload (impacts on health)
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| What is the facial feedback hypothesis and which theory of emotion does it align with most? | Facial expressions associated with specific emotions initiate physiological changes that are consistent with those emotions
→ Smiling makes us feel happy
Aligned with: James Lange Theory
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| What is Weber's Law? | ➤ Mathematical equation to quantify the JND based on intensity of stimulus and mode of perception
➤ JND = a constant ratio of the original stimulus
➤ Eg: for touch/heaviness, the JND is a constant 2%; for vision/brightness, the JND is a constant 7.9%
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| What is Fechner's Law? | ➤ Explored how perceived intensity of a stimulus changes as the physical intensity changes
➤ Weber's Law + assumption that 1 JND = 1 unit of difference in perceived intensity
➤ If you put in two light bulbs, people will perceive it as 2x as bright
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| What intensities are Weber's & Fechner's Law better at? | Weber: mid-range intensities
Fechner: more accurate than Weber's Law for stimuli at extreme intensities
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| What is Steven's Power Law? | ➤The relationship between perceived intensity and physical intensity is different for different perceptual stimuli
➤ Remember the graph from video showing line length, brightness & electric shock
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| What is Signal Detection Theory (SDT)? | ➤Assumes that perception is the outcome of both sensory & decision-making processes.
➤Decision making always includes uncertainty, which is caused by background noise (random neural activity, distractions, fatigue etc...)
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| What is the decision-making process affected by in SDT? | ➤Decision-making is affected by a person's sensitivity (ability to distinguish between stimulus & noise) & decision criterion (willingness to say a stimulus is present in ambiguous situations)
➤Greater sensitivity = ↑ accuracy in perceiving stimulus
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| What does a typical Signal Detection Theory experiment include? | Numerous trials where a noisy background is presented with a weak signal (eg: a tone) or no signal and asked to say yes if they detect a signal or no if they do not detect it
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| What are the possible decision outcomes in a SDT experiment? | Hit: when the stimulus is present and subject says it is
False alarm: Stimulus is not present but subject says it is
Miss: stimulus is present, person says it is not
Correct rejection: no stimulus is present and subject says it is not
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| What are the limitations of Weber, Fechner & Steven's laws of perception? | ➤ Do not take into account other factors that influence perception (eg: some people are more willing to say they detect something with less evidence; noise in neural activity, cognition)
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| What is the Papez Circuit? | ➤Among 1st to link emotions to specific brain areas
➤Includes hippocampus, mammillary bodies, thalamus & cingulate gyrus
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| What reactions will occur for damage of each hemisphere? | Left = "catastrophic reaction" (depression, fear, anxiety, paranoia)
Right = "indifference reaction" (inappropriate indifference and/or euphoria)
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| What occurs when the amygdala has bilateral lesions? | Loss of fear
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| What occurs when the amygdala is electrically stimulated? | Rage or fear
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| What occurs when the hypothalamus has bilateral lesions? | Rage
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| What occurs when the hypothalamus is electrically stimulated? | Pleasure or fear
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| What are the 5 theories of emotion? | ➤James Lange Theory
➤Canon-Bard Theory
➤Schacter & Singer Two Factor Theory - aka cognitive arousal theory
➤Lazarus' Cognitive Appraisal Theory
➤LeDoux's Two-System Theory (of fear)
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| Who is most likely to experience red/green color blindness and why? | ➤Men = most common b/c inheriting a single mutated gene from maternal side is sufficient to cause it
*Women need to inherit two X chromosomes for gene to be expressed*
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| What are the risk factors for a CVA? | Hypertension, heart disease, diabetes, smoking, hardened arteries (atherosclerosis), heavy drinking, obesity, older age, male, African American & family history
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| What are the symptoms of a middle cerebral artery stroke? | Contralateral sensory loss, contralateral hemiparesis (weakness), hemiplegia (paralysis), contralateral homonymous hemianopsia (visual field loss), dysarthria (slurred speech), aphasia (for dom hem) or apraxia & contralateral neglect (when nondom hem)
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| What are the symptoms of a posterior cerebral artery stroke? | Contralateral sensory loss, hemiparesis, visual field loss, slurred speech, nausea & vomiting, memory loss
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| What are the symptoms of an anterior cerebral artery stroke? | Contralateral sensory loss, hemiparesis (especially in legs), ↓ insight & judgment, mutism, apathy, confusion, urinary incontinence
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| What are the causes of Parkinson's? | ➤↓ dopamine producing cells in substantia nigra & basal ganglia = motor symptoms
➤Excessive glutamate in basal ganglia linked to progression of symptoms
➤Breakdown of norepinephrine neurons in locus coeruleus = non-motor symptoms
➤ApoE gene
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| What are the causes of Hungtington's? | ➤Abnormalities in basal ganglia
➤Abnormal levels of GABA , glutamate & dopamine in basal ganglia
➤Autosomal dominant gene (single copy of the mutated gene (from one parent) is enough) - 50% of a child getting it
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| What are the symptoms of a temporal lobe focal onset seizure? | ➤Aura, strange odor/taste, rising sensation in stomach, sudden intense fear, deja vu (familiarity) or jamais vu (unfamiliarity), sweating, dilated pupils, tachycardia, autonomic symptoms (lip smacking, repeated chewing/swallowing, fidgeting) & automatisms
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| What are the symptoms of a frontal lobe focal onset seizure? | ➤Lasts >30s while asleep
➤Kicking, rocking, bicycle pedalling, abnormal body posturing, screams or laughter, autonomic symptoms
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| What are the symptoms of a parietal lobe focal seizure? | ➤Tingling, numbness, pain, feelings of movement, body image distortions (feeling body part is enlarged, shrunken or missing)
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| What are the symptoms of an occipital lobe focal seizure? | ➤Rapid eye blinking, eyelid flutter, involuntary eye movements, flashing or stationary bright light, multi-colored circular patterns and other visual hallucinations, partial blindness, impaired visual acuity or other visual impairments
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| What are the symptoms of a generalized onset nonmotor seizure? | ➤Brief loss of consciousness involving a blank stare and possibly eyelids flutter and eyes turn upwards
Aka: Absence or petit mal
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| What are the symptoms of a generalized onset motor seizure? | ➤Change in consciousness, beginning with a tonic phase where muscles stiffen in face & limbs followed by a clonic phase where jerky movements in the arms and legs occur
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| What are the risk factors for primary hypertension? | ➤Obesity, smoking, excessive salt, stress, male, older age, African American & family history
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| What are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism? | ➤ Too much thyroid hormones
➤ ↑ metabolism, ↑ heart rate, ↑ body temp, ↑ appetite with weight loss, heat intolerance, insonia, emotional lability, ↓attention span
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| What are the symptoms of hypothyroidism? | ➤ Too little thyroid hormones
➤↓ metabolism, ↓body temp, cold intolerance, ↓ sex drive, ↓ appetite with weight gain, ↓ heart rate, depression, lethargy, confusion, ↓ memory & concentration
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| What is antidiuretic hormone? | ➤ Responsible for the amount of water excreted in urine
➤ Produced by pituitary gland
➤ AKA vasopressin
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| What is hypoglycemia a result of? | ➤ Too much insulin from pancreas which ↓ blood glucose levels
Causes: skipping meals, excessive exercise, tumor, high dose of insulin, excessive alcohol, adrenal/pituitary disorders
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| What are the symptoms of Type I & II Diabetes? | ➤Excessive hunger/thirst, frequent urination, blurred vision, numb/tingling hands & feet, frequent infection, ↓ weight
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| What are Type I & Type II Diabetes? | Type I: autoimmune disease that destroys insulin producing cells in pancreas
Type II: Pancreas produces too little insulin or the body cannot use the insulin that is being produced
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| What does an EEG do? | Measures brain activity via electrodes
Useful to quickly see brain changes, diagnose seizures, brain injury, tumor, sleep disorders & confirming brain death
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| What are the types of neuroimaging techniques? | Structural:
↪CT Scan
↪MRI
↪DTI
Functional:
↪PET
↪SPECT
↪fMRI
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| What do the structural neuroimaging techniques do? | ➤ Computerized Axial Tomography (CT): x-rays to obtain images of horizontal slices of the brain
➤ Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): uses magnetic fields & radio waves to obtain cross-sectional images of the brain
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| What do the functional neuroimaging techniques do? | ➤Positron-Emission Tomography (PET): radioactive tracer taken up by active brain cells
➤Single Proton Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT): Same as PET but easier & ↓ money
➤Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): changes in blood oxygenation/flow
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| What are the symptoms of conduction aphasia? | ➤Effortless but incoherent speech and relatively intact comprehension
➤Occurs when the arcuate fasciculus is damaged, which connected Broca & Wernicke's Areas
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| What disorder is most commonly comorbid with a TBI, regardless of injury severity? | Major Depressive Disorder
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| Where does the middle cerebral artery supply blood to? | Frontal lobe & lateral temporal and parietal lobes
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| Where does the anterior cerebral artery supply blood to? | The frontal and parietal lobes
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| Where does the posterior cerebral artery supply blood to? | Temporal & occipital lobes
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| What % of people with Parkinson's experience depression? | Up to 50%
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| What are the symptoms of central diabetes insipidus? | ➤Result of insufficient ADH
➤Frequent urination, extreme thirst, dehydration, ↓ weight, ↓ blood pressure, constipation
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| What are the types of binocular cues used for depth perception? | ➤ Retinal disparity - eyes see objects from two different views (closer an object, the greater the disparity)
➤ Convergence - when eyes turn inward (converge) when an object gets closer and vice versa
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| What are the types of monocular cues used for depth perception? | ➤ Motion parallax - relative motion of objects
➤ Interposition - overlap of objects
➤ Linear perspective
➤ Texture gradients
➤ Relative size of objects
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| What cues are best for perceiving objects at a greater distance? | ➤ Motion parallax (the quicker movement of closer objects across the visual field), interposition (overlap) of objects, and linear perspective
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| What cues are best for perceiving objects at a close distance? | ➤ Retinal disparity (differences in retinal images in the left and right eyes)
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| ________ are responsible for visual acuity, color perception & are best in bright light; ___________ are responsible for peripheral vision & best in dim light | Cones; rods
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| ________________ _______ involve both eyes and are responsible for perception of close objects | Binocular cues
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| ____________ _______ involve one eye and are responsible for depth perception of far objects | Monocular cues
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| A __________ __________ _________ produce combination of cognitive, emotional and behavioral/physical like amnesia, nausea/vomiting, headaches, depression, irritability, sleep issues, aprosodia & seizures. | Traumatic Brain Injury
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| What are the initial symptoms of Huntington's? | Affective symptoms: depression, mood swings
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| ________ ________ involves a blockage in a cerebral artery by a blood clot | Ischemic Stroke
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| __________ ____________ involves a rupture in a cerebral artery within the brain or in the space between the membrane that covers the brain | Hemorrhagic stroke
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| What is an embolic stroke vs. thrombotic stroke? | Embolic: involves a clot occurring in the heart/elsewhere in the body and travelling to the brain
Thrombotic: involves a clot occurring within the brain artery
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| What is dysarthria? | Slurred speech
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| What might hypothyroidism present as? | Depression
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| What might hyperthyroidism as clinically? | Anxiety & mania
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| What age does Type I diabetes typically present? | Usually before age 30
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