APES Definitions
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| First Law of Thermodynamics | Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another
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| Second Law of Thermodynamics | When energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy (usually heat)
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| Ionizing radiation | Radiation with enough energy to free electrons from atoms forming ions, may cause cancer (ex. gamma, X-rays, UV)
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| High Quality Energy | Organized & concentrates, can perform useful work (ex. fossil fuels & nuclear)
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| Low Quality Energy | Disorganized, dispersed (ex. heat in ocean or air/wind, solar)
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| Natural radioactive decay | Unstable radioisotopes decay releasing gamma rays, alpha & beta particles (ex. Radon)
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| Half-life | The time it takes for 1/2 of the mass of a radioisotope to decay. A radioactive isotope must be stored for approximately 10 half-lives until it decays to a safe level
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| Nuclear Fission | Nuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutrons
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| Nuclear Fusion | 2 isotopes of light elements (H) forced together at high temperatures till they fuse to form a heavier nucleus. Happens in the Sun, very difficult to accomplish on Earth, prohibitively expensive
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| Ore | A rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine
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| Mineral Reserve | Identified deposits currently profitable to extract
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| Surface mining | Cheaper, can remove more minerals, less hazardous to workers
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| Humus | Organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms
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| Leaching | Removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards through soil
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| Loam | Perfect agricultural soil with equal portions of sand, silt, and clay
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| Soil Conservation Methods | Conservation tillage, crop rotation, contour plowing, organic fertilizers
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| Hydrologic Cycle Components | Evaporation, transpiration, runoff, condensation, precipitation, and infiltration
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| Aquifer | Any water-bearing layer in the ground
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| Cone of Depression | Lowering of the water table around a pumping well
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| Salt Water Intrusion | Near the coast, overpumping of groundwater causes saltwater to move into the aquifer
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| ENSO | El Nino Southern Oscillation, trade winds weaken & warm surface water moves toward South America. Diminished fisheries off South America, drought in western Pacific, increased precipitation in southwestern North America, fewer Atlantic hurricanes
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| La Nina | "Normal" year, easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the West coast of South America
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| Nitrogen Fixation | because atmospheric N cannot be used directly by plants, it must first be converted into ammonia by bacteria
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| Ammonification | Decomposers convert organic waste into ammonia
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| Nitrification | Ammonia is converted to nitrate ions (NO3-)
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| Assimilation | Inorganic N is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids & proteins
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| Denitrification | Bacteria convert ammonia back into N
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| Phosphorus | Does not exist as a gas; released by weathering of phosphate rocks, it is a major limiting factor for plant growth. Phosphorus cycle is slow, and not atmospheric
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| Photosynthesis | Plants convert CO2 (atmospheric C) into complex carbohydrates (glucose C6H12O6)
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| Aerobic Respiration | Oxygen consuming producers, consumers & decomposers break down complex organic compounds & convert C back into CO2
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| Largest reservoirs of Carbon | (1) carbonate rocks (2) oceans
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| Biotic/Abiotic | Living & nonliving components of an ecosystem
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| Producer/Autotroph | Organisms that make their own food; photosynthetic life
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| Trophic Levels | Producers - Primary Consumer - Secondary Consumer - Tertiary Consumer - Decomposers
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| Energy Flow through Food Webs | 10% of the usable energy is transferred to the next trophic level. Reason: usable energy lost as heat (2nd law), not all biomass is digested & absorbed, predators expend energy to catch prey
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| Primary succession | Development of communities in a lifeless area not previously inhabited by life (ex. lava)
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| Secondary succession | Life progresses where soil remains (ex. clear-cut forest, old farm)
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| Mutualism | Symbiotic relationship where both organisms benefit
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| Commensalism | Symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits and the other is unaffected
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| Parasitism | Relationship in which one organism (the parasite) obtains nutrients at the expense of the host
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| Carrying Capacity | The number of individuals that can be sustained in an area
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| r-strategist | Reproductive strategy in which organisms reproduce early, bear many small, unprotected offspring (ex. insects, mice)
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| K-strategist | Reproductive strategy in which organisms reproduce late, bear few, cared for offspring (ex. humans, elephants)
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| Natural Selection | Organisms that possess favorable adaptations pass them onto the next generation
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| Thomas Malthus | "Human population cannot continue to increase. Consequences will be war, famine, and pestilence."
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| Doubling Time | (Rule of 70) equals 70 divided by percent growth rate (ex. a population growing at 5% annually doubles in 70/5 = 14 years)
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| Replacement Level Fertility | The number of children a couple must have to replace themselves (2.1 more developed, 2.7 less)
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| Demographic Transition Model | Preindustrial stage, transitional stage, industrial stage, postindustrial stage
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| Preindustrial stage | Birth & death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality high
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| Transitional stage | Death rate (infant mortality) lower, birth rates remain high, better health care, population grows fast
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| Industrial stage | Decline in birth rate, population growth slows
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| Postindustrial stage | Low birth & death rates
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| Age Structure Diagrams | Broad base - rapid growth; narrow base - negative growth; uniform shape - zero growth
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| Most Populous Nations | (1) China (2) India
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| Low Status of Women | Most important factor keeping population growth rates high
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| Methods to Decrease Birth Rates | Family planning, contraception, economic rewards, and penalties
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| Composition of Water on Earth | 97.5% seawater, 2.5% freshwater
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| Soil Salinization | In arid regions, water evaporates leaving salts behind (ex. Fertile Crescent, southwestern US)
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| Point Source | From specific location such as pipe or smokestack
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| Non-Point Source | From over an area such as agricultural (farm) runoff, traffic
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| BOD | Biological Oxygen Demand, amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down organic materials
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| Eutrophication | Rapid algal growth caused by an excess of nitrogen & phosphorus
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| Hypoxia | When aquatic plants die, the BOD rises as aerobic decomposers break down the plants, the DO drops & the water cannot support life
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| Primary Air Pollutants | Produced by humans & nature (CO, CO2, SO2, NO, hydrocarbons, particulates)
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| Secondary Air Pollutants | Formed by reaction of primary pollutants
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| Particulate Matter | Sources include burning fossil fuels and car exhaust. Effects include reduced visibility, respiratory irritation. Methods of reduction include filtering, electrostatic precipitators, alternative energy.
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| Nitrogen Oxides | (NOx) Major source is auto exhaust. Primary and secondary effects include acidification of lakes, respiratory irritation, leads to smog and ozone. Reduced using catalytic converters
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| Ozone | Secondary pollutant. Causes respiratory irritation and plant damage. Reduced by reducing NO emissions and VOCs
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| Sulfur Oxides | (SOx) Primary source is coal burning. Primary and secondary effects include acid deposition, respiratory irritation, plant damage. Reduction methods include: scrubbers, burn low sulfur fuel
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| Carbon Oxides | (CO2 and CO) Sources include burning fossil fuels, incomplete combustion. Effects: CO binds to hemoglobin reducing blood's ability to carry O; CO2 contributes to global warming. Reduction accomplished by catalytic converters, oxygenated fuel, mass transit
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| Industrial Smog | Found in cities that burn large amounts of coal
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| Photochemical Smog | Formed by chemical reactions involving sunlight (NO, VOC, O)
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| Acid Deposition | Caused by sulfuric and nitric acids resulting in lowered pH of surface waters
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| Greenhouse Gases | Most significatn: H2O, CO2, O3, methane (CH4), CFCs. Trap outgoing infrared energy (heat) causing earth to warm
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| Greenhouse Effect | A vital process, required for life to exist on Earth. If accelerated, bad, leads to global warming
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| Effects of Global Warming | Rising sea level (due to thermal expansion not melting ice), extreme weather, droughts (famine), and extinctions
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| Ozone Depletion | Caused by CFCs, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, halon, methyl bromide all of which attack stratospheric ozone
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| Effects of Ozone Depletion | Increased UV, skin cancer, cataracts, and decreased plant growth
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| Municipal Solid Waste | Is mostly paper and mostly put into landfills
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| Sanitary Landfill | Problems include leachate, which is solved using a liner with a collection system; methane gas, which may be collected and burned and the volume of garbage, which may be compacted and/or reduced
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| Incineration | Advantages - volume of waste reduced by 90% and waste heat can be used. Disadvantages - toxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride, dioxin), scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators needed, ash disposal
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| Best Solution for Waste Problem | Reduce the amount of waste at the source
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| Keystone Species | Species whose role in an ecosystem is more important than others
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| Indicator Species | Species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damaged
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| Major Insecticide Groups | Chlorinated hydrocarbons - ex. DDT; organophosphates - ex. malathion; carbamates - ex. aldicarb
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| Pesticide Pros | Saves lives from insect transmitted disease, increases food supply, and increases profits for farmers
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| Pesticide Cons | Genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation, and biological magnification
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| Natural Pest Control | Better agricultural practices, genetically resistant plants, natural enemies, and biopesticides, sex attractants
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| Electricity Generation | Steam, from water boiled by fossil fuels or nuclear energy, or falling water is used to turn a generator
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| Petroleum Formation | Microscopic aquatic organisms in sediments converted by heat & pressure into a mixture of hydrocarbons
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| Petroleum Pros | Cheap, easily transported, high-quality energy
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| Petroleum Cons | Reserves depleted soon, pollution during drilling, transport and refining, burning makes CO2
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| Coal Formation | Peat, lignite, bituminous coal, anthracite coal
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| Nuclear Reactor | Consists of a core, control rods, moderator, steam generator, turbine, containment building
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| Alternate Energy Sources | Wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells
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| LD-50 | The amount of a chemical that kills 50% of the animals in a test populations
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| Mutagen | Causes hereditary changes
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| Teratogen | Causes fetus deformities
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| Carcinogen | Causes cancer
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| Multiple Use Public Lands | National Forest & National Resource Lands
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| Moderately Restricted Use Public Lands | National Wildlife Refuges
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| Restricted Use Public Lands | National Parks, National Wilderness Preservation System
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| Volcanoes and Earthquakes | Occur at tectonic plate boundaries; divergent - spreading (ex. mid-ocean ridges); convergent - (ex. trenches); transform fault, sliding - (ex. San Andreas)
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| Mineral Deposits | Most abundant at convergent plate boundaries
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