6.3 Operant Conditio
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| operant conditioning | organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequence. A pleasant consequence makes that behavior more likely to be repeated in the future.
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| Psychologist B. F. Skinner | saw that classical conditioning is limited to existing behaviors that are reflexively elicited, and it doesn’t account for new behaviors such as riding a bike.
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| Skinner | believed that behavior is motivated by the consequences we receive for the behavior: the reinforcements and punishments.
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| Edward Thorndike | Law and Effect was proposed by
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| Law of Effect | According to the ----, behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated
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| Positive | means you are adding something
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| Negative | means you are taking something away.
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| Reinforcement | means you are increasing a behavior
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| Punishment | means you are decreasing a behavior.
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| Reinforcement and Punishment | can be positive and negative.
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| Positive Reinforcement | Something is added to increase the likelihood of a behavior.
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| Positive Punishment | Something is added to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.
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| Negative Reinforcement | Something is removed to increase the likelihood of a behavior.
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| Negative Punishment | Something is removed to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.
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| Positive reinforcement | a desirable stimulus is added to increase a behavior. For example, you tell your five-year-old son, Jerome, that if he cleans his room, he will get a toy.
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| In negative reinforcement | an undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behavior. For example, car manufacturers use the principles of negative reinforcement in their seatbelt systems, which go “beep, beep, beep” until you fasten your seatbelt.
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| punishment | In contrast, ----- always decreases a behavior.
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| positive punishment | In positive punishment, you add an undesirable stimulus to decrease a behavior. An example of positive punishment is scolding a student to get the student to stop texting in class.
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| negative punishment | you remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.
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| reinforcement | Today’s psychologists and parenting experts favor ---- over punishment—they recommend that you catch your child doing something good and reward her for it.
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| shaping | Instead of rewarding only the target behavior, in ---- , we reward successive approximations of a target behavior.
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| Shaping (1) | Reinforce any response that resembles the desired behavior.
Then reinforce the response that more closely resembles the desired behavior. You will no longer reinforce the previously reinforced response.
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| Shaping (2) | Next, begin to reinforce the response that even more closely resembles the desired behavior.
Continue to reinforce closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Finally, only reinforce the desired behavior.
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| Shaping | is often used in teaching a complex behavior or chain of behaviors.
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| stimulus discrimination | An important part of shaping is -----. Recall Pavlov’s dogs—he trained them to respond to the tone of a bell, and not to similar tones or sounds. This discrimination is also important in operant conditioning and in shaping behavior.
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| primary reinforcer | If you gave Joaquin a piece of candy every time he made a goal, you would be using a ------. ----- are reinforcers that have innate reinforcing qualities. These kinds of reinforcers are not learned.
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| Water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, and touch, among others, are primary reinforcers | Pleasure is also a primary reinforcer.
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| secondary reinforcer | A has no inherent value and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer.
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| secondary reinforcer | Praise, linked to affection, is one example of a ---, as when you called out “Great shot!” every time Joaquin made a goal.
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| secondary reinforcer | Another example, money, is only worth something when you can use it to buy other things—either things that satisfy basic needs (food, water, shelter—all primary reinforcers) or other secondary reinforcers.
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| Token | ---, which are also secondary reinforcers, can then be traded in for rewards and prizes. Entire behavior management systems, known as --- economies, are built around the use of these kinds of ---- reinforcers.
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| Token | When the children in the study exhibited appropriate behavior (not hitting or pinching), they received a “quiet hands” -. When they hit or pinched, they lost a -. The children could then exchange specified amounts of - for minutes of playtime.
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| Token Economy | Sticker Charts
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| Behavior Modification | Token Economy & Time-Out
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| continuous reinforcement | When an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior, it is called ---. This reinforcement schedule is the quickest way to teach someone a behavior, and it is especially effective in training a new behavior.
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| partial reinforcement | In ---, also referred to as intermittent reinforcement, the person or animal does not get reinforced every time they perform the desired behavior.
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| Fixed | --- refers to the number of responses between reinforcements, or the amount of time between reinforcements, which is set and unchanging.
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| Variable | --- refers to the number of responses or amount of time between reinforcements, which varies or changes.
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| Interval | --- means the schedule is based on the time between reinforcements,
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| Fixed interval | is delivered at predictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes). Moderate response rate with significant pauses after reinforcement. Hospital patient uses patient-controlled, doctor-timed pain relief
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| Variable interval | Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 7, 10, and 20 minutes). Moderate yet steady response rate. Checking Facebook
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| Fixed ratio | Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (e.g., after 2, 4, 6, and 8 responses). High response rate with pauses after reinforcement Piecework—factory worker getting paid for every x number of items manufactured
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| Variable ratio | Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., after 1, 4, 5, and 9 responses). High and steady response rate Gambling
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| A ---- is when behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time. For example, June undergoes major surgery in a hospital. | fixed interval reinforcement schedule
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| variable interval reinforcement schedule | the person or animal gets the reinforcement based on varying amounts of time, which are unpredictable.
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| fixed ratio reinforcement schedule | With a ---, there are a set number of responses that must occur before the behavior is rewarded.
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| variable ratio reinforcement schedule | In a ---, the number of responses needed for a reward varies.
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| after | In operant conditioning, extinction of a reinforced behavior occurs at some point --- reinforcement stops, and the speed at which this happens depends on the reinforcement schedule. In
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