AP Bio Unit 6 Vocab
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| Purines | nucleotides composed of double ring structures (A. G)
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| Pyrimidines | nucleotides composed of single ring structures (C, U, T)
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| Antiparallel | opposite orientations of the two strands of a DNA helix, 5' end aligns with 3' end
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| Plasmids | small circular DNA molecules that are separate from chromosomes
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| RNA | one of the two types of nucleic acid made by cells, composed of ribonucleic acid, and is single stranded
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| DNA | another one of the two types of nucleic acid made by cells, contains genetic information, composed of deoxyribonucleic acid, and is double stranded
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| Origins of replication | a sequence of DNA at which replication is initiated on a chromosomes, plasmid, or virus
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| Replication fork | the point at which the two strands of DNA are separated to allow replication of each strand
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| Helicase | the enzyme that unwinds DNA strands at each replication fork
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| Topoisomerase | the enzyme that prevents strain ahead of the replication fork by relaxing super coiling
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| Primase | the enzyme that initiates replication by adding short segments of RNA to the parental DNA strand
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| Primers | short segments of RNA which are added to the parental DNA strand
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| DNAP III | attaches to each primer on the parental strand and moves in the 3' to 5' direction
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| DNAP I | replaces RNA nucleotides with DNA nucleoties
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| Leading strand | a single DNA strand, that during DNA replication, is replicated in a 3' to 5' direction (same direction as the replication fork)
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| Lagging strand | the strand of parental DNA that runs in the opposite direction which the replication fork opens
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| Okazaki fragments | small sections of DNA that are formed during discontinuous synthesis of the lagging strand during DNA replication
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| DNA ligase | joins the Okazaki fragments forming on a continuous DNA strand
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| Telomeres | repeating unites of short nucleotide sequences that do not code for genes
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| Telomerase | the enzyme that adds telomeres to DNA
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| Nuclease | if segments of DNA are damaged, nuclease can remove segments of nucleotides
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| Mismatch repair | fixes mis-paired bases right after DNA replication
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| Transcription | the synthesis of RNA using information from DNA
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| Gene expression | the process by which DNA directs the synthesis of proteins
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| Template strand | the strand used by DNA polymerase or RNA polymerase to attach complementary bases during DNA replication or RNA transcription
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| Codon | a sequence of three consecutive nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule that codes for a specific amino acid
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| rRNA | helps form ribosomes
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| tRNA | transfer molecules that are important in the process of translation, carry specific amino acid, and can attach to mRNA
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| 5' Cap | the 5' end of the pre-mRNA receives a modified guanine nucleotide cap
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| Poly-A-Tail | the 3' end of the pre-mRNA receives 50-250 adenine nucleotides
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| mRNA | messenger DNA, the copy of DNA information that is moved out of the nucleus to give instructions in the process of protein formation
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| Redundancy | more than one codon can code for each amino acid
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| Reading frame | the codons on the mRNA must be read in the correct groupings during translation to synthesize the correct proteins
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| Alternative splicing | a cellular process in which exons from the same gene are joined in different combinations, leading to different, but related, mRNA
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| RNA splicing | sections of the pre-mRNA, called introns, are removed and then exons are joined together
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| Translation | the synthesis of a polypeptide using information from RNA
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| Anticodon | a trinucleotide sequence located at the end of a tRNA molecule which is complementary to a corresponding codon in a mRNA sequence
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| tRNA | transfer molecules that are important in the process of translation, carry specific amino acid, and can attach to mRNA
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| Stop codon | sequence of three nucleotides in a DNA or messenger RNA that signals a halt to protein synthesis in the cell
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| Operons | a group of genes that can be turned on and off
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| Promoter | where RNA polymerase can attach
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| Operator | the on/off switch
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| Inducible | transcription is usually off by can be induced
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| Cytoplasmic determinants | various molecules in the cytoplasm that contain genetic information or chemicals to spark various reactions
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| Allosteric inhibitor | substrate binds to allosteric site and stabilizes the enzyme shape so that active sites are closed
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| Regulatory gene | produces a repressor protein that binds to the operator to block RNA polymerase from transcribing the gene
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| Allosteric activator | substate binds to allosteric site and stabilizes the shape of the enzyme so the active sites remain open
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| Control elements | A segment of noncoding DNA that helps regulate transcription of a gene by binding a transcription factor
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| Histone acetylation | adds acetyl groups to histones which loosens DNA
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| DNA methylation | adds methyl groups to DNA (causes chromatin to condense)
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| Epigenetic inheritance | chromatin modifications do not alter the nucleotide sequence of DNA but they can be heritable to future generations
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| Gene | a piece of genetic information that codes for a certain trait
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| Differentiation | cells become specialized in their structure and function
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| Morphogenesis | the physical process that gives an organism its shape
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| Repressible | they are on but can be turned off by a small molecule.
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| Induction | cell to cell signals that can cause a change in gene expression
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| Homeotic genes | map out body structures
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| Apoptosis | programmed cell death
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| Pattern formation | a "body plan" for the organism
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| Mutations | changes in genetic material of a cell which can alter phenotypes
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| Genotype | the organism's underlying genetic makeup (combination of alleles)
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| Phenotype | an individual's observable traits
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| Nondisjunction | when chromosomes do not separate properly in meiosis
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| Translocation | a segment of one chromosome moves to another
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| Inversion | segment is reversed
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| Deletion | segment is lost
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| Horizontal gene transfer | the introduction of genetic material from one species to another species by mechanisms other than the vertical transmission from parent(s) to offspring
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| Transformation | uptaking DNA from a nearby cell
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| Conjugation | cell to cell transfer of DNA
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| Transposition | movement of DNA segments within and between DNA molecules
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| Point mutation | change a single nucleotide pair of a gene
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| Duplication | segment is replaced
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| Transduction | viral transmissions of genetic material
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| Substitution | the replacement of one nucleotide and its partner with another pair of nucleotides
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| Gel electrophoresis | a technique used to separate DNA fragments by size
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| PCR | a method used in molecular biology to make several copies of a specific DNA segment
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| DNA sequencing | the process of determining the order of nucleotides in DNA
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