PSYC 206
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| Schemes | In Piaget's theory, actions or mental representations that organize knowledge
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| Assimilation | Piagetian concept in which children use existing schemes to incorporate new information
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| Accommodation | Piagetian concept of adjusting schemes to fit new information and experiences
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| Organization | Piagetian concept of grouping isolated behaviors and thoughts into higher-order, more smoothly functioning cognitive system
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| Equilibration | A mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how children shift from one stage of thought to the next
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| Sensorimotor Skills | The first of Piaget's stages, which lasts from birth to about 2 years of age, during which an infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (seeing/hearing) with physical, motoric actions
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| According to Piaget, infants develop behavioral schemes, whereas children develop ______ schemes. | Mental
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| Object Permanence | The Piagetian term for one of an infant's most important accomplishments: understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot directly
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| Eventually children learn not to put everything in their mouths. This is an example of ________. | Accommodation
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| A-not-B Error | This error occurs when infants make the mistake of not selecting the familiar hiding place (A) of an object rather than its new hiding place (B) as they progress into substage 4 in Piaget's sensorimotor stage
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| Core Knowledge Approach | States that infants are born with domain-specific innate knowledge systems. Among these domain-specific knowledge systems are those involving space, number sense, object permanence, and language
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| According to Piaget, what is a child's motivation to change? | An internal search for equilibrium
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| Preoperational Stage | The second stage of Piaget's development which lasts from 2-7 years of age; children begin to represent the world with words, drawings, and images
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| Operations | Reversible mental actions that allow children to do mentally what before they had only done physically
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| What is the order of Piaget's stages? | Sensorimotor-> Preoperational -> Concrete Operational -> Formal Operational
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| Symbolic Function Substage | The first substage of preoperational thought, occurring between the ages of 2 and 4; the young child gains the ability to represent mentally an object that is not present
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| Egocentrism | The inability to distinguish between one's own and someone else's perspective; an important feature of preoperational thought
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| What is the main difference between a reflex and a habit? | A habit is a scheme based on a reflex, but it is completely separated from the original eliciting stimulus
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| Animism | A facet of preoperational thought- the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action on their own
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| Centration | Focusing attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others
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| Intuitive Thought Substage | The second substage of preoperational thought, occurring between ages 4-7; children begin to use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions
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| Conservation | The awareness that altering the appearance of an object or a substance does not change its basic properties
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| Which of Piaget's stages lasts from birth to about 2 years of age? | Sensorimotor
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| Concrete Operational Stage | The third Piagetian stage, which lasts from approximately 7-11 year; children can perform concrete operations, and logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning as long as the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples
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| Seriation | The concrete operation that involves ordering stimuli along a quantitative dimension (such as length)
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| Baby Alec continues to fuss for 5 minutes when his brother takes away a toy that he enjoys playing with. This can be used as evidence that Alec has developed _______. | Object Permanence
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| Transitivity | The ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions; Piaget argued that an understanding of transitivity is characteristic of concrete operational thought
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| Formal Operational Stage | The fourth and final Piagetian stage, which appears between the ages of 11 and 15; individuals move beyond concrete experiences into more abstract and logical ways
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| Piaget labeled his second stage preoperational, because children at this stage _______. | Cannot yet perform operations-reversible mental actions- that they are able to do physically
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| Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning | Piaget's formal operational concept that adolescents have the cognitive ability to develop hypotheses about ways to solve problems and can systematically deduce which is the best path to follow in solving the problem
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| Adolescent Egocentrisim | The heightened self-consciousness of adolescents, which is reflected in adolescents' beliefs that others are as interested in them as they are themselves, and in adolescents' sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility
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| Imaginary Audience | That aspect of adolescent egocentrism that involves feeling that one is the center of attention and sensing that one is on stage
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| Personal Fable | The part of adolescent egocentrism that involves an adolescent's sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility
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| Neo-Piagetians | Developmentalists who have elaborates on Piaget's theory, emphasizing attention to children's strategies; information-processing speed; the task involved; and division of the problem into more precise smaller steps
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| Animism and egocentrism represent limitations in the preoperational child's thinking because they indicate an inability to _______. | Distinguish among different or real perspectives
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| Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) | Vygotsky's term for tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but can be mastered with guidance and assistance from adults or more-skilled children
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| Scaffolding | In cognitive development, a term Vygotsky used to describe the changing level of support over the course of a teaching session, with the more-skilled person adjusting guidance to fit the child's current performance level
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| Social Constructivist Approach | An emphasis on the social contexts of learning and construction of knowledge through social interaction; Vygotsky's theory reflects this approach
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| Postformal Thought | Thinking that is reflective, relativistic, and contextual; provisional ; realistic; and influenced by emotions
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| Nathan and Sara are eating granola bars, Sara breaks her bar in half and Nathan gets upset that Sara has two granola bars, Nathan has not developed the concept of _______. | Conservation
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| The concrete operational stage lasts approximately from ages _____. | 7 through 11
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| Halene is sure that all of her classmates are staring at her new haircut; this is an example of ________. | An imaginary audience
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| Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children _______. | Actively construct their knowledge and understanding
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| According to Vygotsky, the range of tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but can be learned with guidance are related to the _________. | The zone of proximal development
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| Vygotsky believed that private speech is _______. | An important tool of though in early childhood years
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| According to Vygotsky, what should a teacher NOT do in the classroom in helping a student learn new things? | Leave the student alone to figure things out by himself
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| According to William Perry, compared to adolescent thinking, adult thinking is _______. | Reflective and Relativistic
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| Artificial Intelligence (AI) | Scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by paper
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| Information-Processing Approach | Analyzes how individuals encode information, manipulate it, monitor it , and create strategies for handling it
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| Encoding | The process by which information gets into memory
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| Automaticity | The ability to process information with little or no effort
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| Strategy Construction | Creation of new procedures for processing information
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| Metacognition | Cognition about cognition, or "knowing about knowing"
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| The information-processing approach to cognitive development is concerned mainly with ____. | How people encode, manipulate, monitor, and create strategies to manage information
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| Attention | Focusing of mental resources
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| Selective Attention | Focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant
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| Divided Attention | Concentrating on more than one activity at the same time
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| Sustained Attention | The ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time
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| Executive Attention | Cognitive process involving planning actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances
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| Learning to drive a car requires deliberate coordination of mental processes but eventually becomes nearly effortless. This is the concept of _____. | Automaticity
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| Joint Attention | Focus by individuals on the same object or event; requires an ability to track another's behavior, one individual to direct another's attention and reciprocal interaction
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| What are two ways in which preschool children's control of attention is still deficient? | Salient vs Relevant Dimensions (play attention to flashy things)
Planfulness (children's planning improves with advances in executive attention)
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| Which of the following statements accurately describes processing speed? | Processing speed increases dramatically across the childhood years
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| Memory | The retention of information over time
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| Schema Theory | Theory stating that people mold memories to fit information that already exists in their minds
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| Schemas | Mental frameworks that organize concepts and information
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| Implicit Memory | Memory without conscious recollection- memory of skills and routine procedures that are performed automatically
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| Explicit Memory | Conscious memory of facts and experiences
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| Long-Term Memory | A relatively permanent and unlimited type of memory
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| Short-Term Memory | Retention of information for up to 15 - 30 seconds, without rehearsal of the information; using rehearsal help individuals can information longer in short-term memory
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| What is memory encoding? | Getting information into memory
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| What is memory storage? | Retaining the information over time
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| What is memory retrieval? | Taking information out of storage
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| Stacy is vigilant in watching her baby for any change in her breathing. This is an example of ________ attention. | Sustained
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| Working Memory | A mental "workbench" where individuals manipulate and assemble information when making decisions, solving problems, and comprehending written and spoken language
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| Elaboration | Engagement in more extensive processing of information, benefitting memory
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| Fuzzy-Trace Theory | States that memory is best understood by considering two types of memory representations: 1) verbatim memory trace 2) gist
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| What are two strategies that adults can use to guide children's retention of memory? | Repeat with variation on the instructional information and link early and often and embed memory-relevant language when instructing children
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| Joint attention requires all of the following EXCEPT _____. | Verbal dialog between the two parties
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| Episodic Memory | Retention of information about the where and when of life's happening
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| Semantic Memory | A person's knowledge about the world, including fields of expertise, general academic knowledge, and "everyday knowledge" about meanings of words, names of famous individuals, important places, and common things
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| Source Memory | The ability to remember where something was learned
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| Prospective Memory | Remembering to do something in the future
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| Thinking | Manipulating and transforming information in memory, in order to reason, reflect, think critically, evaluate ideas and solve problems, and make decisions
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| Concepts | Cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or ideas
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| Executive Function | A umbrella-like concept that encompasses a number of higher-level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brain's prefrontal cortex; involves managing one's thoughts to engage in goal-directed behavior and to exercise self-control
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| What are the three processes required for memory? | Encoding, storage, and retrieval
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| Critical Thinking | Thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating the evidence
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| Fuzzy-Trace Theory Dual-Process Model | States that decision making is influenced by two systems- "verbatim" analytical (literal and precise) and gist-based intuition (simple bottom-line meaning)- which operate in parallel; in this model, gist-based intuition benefits adolescent decision making
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| Which of the following statements characterizes the schema theory of memory? | We reconstruct our memories to fit the schema already in our minds
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| Expertise | Having extensive, highly organized knowledge and understanding of a particular domain
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| Memory of skills and routines performed without conscious recollection is known as ______ | Implicit memory
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| Metamemory | Knowledge about memory
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| Theory of Mind | Thoughts about how one's own mental processes work and the mental processes of others
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| What three things do children between the ages of 1 1/2-3 years of age begin to understand? | Perceptions, emotions, desires
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| Working memory is ______. | The place where information is manipulated and assembled when people make decisions or solve problems
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| Approximately 1 in ___ children are estimated to have some type of autism. | 68
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| While reading a book for literature class, Kelly tried to relate to the character's struggles and note how they are similar and different from her own life so that she can remember the events in the book better. Kelly is using the ________ strategy. | Elaboration
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| What is the reminiscence bump? | Adults remember more events from the second and third decades of their life than any other; which may be the most positive memories
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| Anna is trying to remember a quote she learned years ago. She can remember the professor who quoted it but not the actual quote. She succeeded in ________, but failed in ________. | Source memory; semantic memory
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| Cognitive groupings of similar people, events, objects, or ideas are called ____. | Concepts
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| Executive function _____. | involves goal-setting and cognitive flexibility
includes executive attention
involves cognitive inhibition and delay gratification
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| Which of the following is NOT true of adolescents' decision-making ability? | Adolescents tend to make better decisions when they are emotionally aroused.
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| Which of the following older adults has the LEAST successful strategy for improving his cognitive skills? | Dwayne listens to easy-listening music for 2 hours everyday
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| Mental Age (MA) | An individual's level of mental development relative to that of others
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| Intelligence Quotient (IQ) | An individual's mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100; devised in 1912 by William Stern
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| Which of the following things about intelligence is NOT true? | Intelligence can be measured easily, similar to taking someone's height
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| Normal Distribution | A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve with a majority of the cases failing in the middle of the possible range of scores and few scores appearing toward the extremes of the ranges
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| Triarchic Theory of Intelligence | Sternberg's theory that intelligence consists of analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence
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| Intelligence | The ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from experiences
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| What are the content areas of the current Stanford-Binet intelligence test? | Fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial reasoning, and working memory
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| Emotional Intelligence | The ability to perceive and express emotions accurately and adaptively, to understand emotion and emotional knowledge to use feelings to facilitate thought and to manage emotions in oneself and others
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| What does the Gardner test focus on? | Verbal/mathematical, spatial/movement/musical, interpersonal/intrapersonal, and naturalistic
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| What does the Sternberg test focus on? | Analytical, practical, and creative intelligence
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| What does the Salovey/Mayer test focus on? | Emotional intelligence
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| Who developed the WISC, WAIS, and WWPSI intelligence tests? | David Weschler
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| Stereotype Threat | Anxiety regarding whether one's behavior might confirm a negative stereotype about one's group
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| Culture-Fair Tests | Intelligence tests that are designed to avoid cultural bias
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| Bayley Scales of Infant Development | Widely used scales, developed by Nancy Bayley, for assessing infant development; current version (Bayley-III) has five scales: cognitive, language, and motor to the infant with socioemotional and adaptive to the caregiver
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| To be effective, IQ scores should be ______. | Considered as just one of several aspects of evaluation in conjunction with other information about the individual
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| Crystallized Intelligence | An individual's accumulated information and verbal skills which continues to increase with age
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| Fluid Intelligence | The ability to reason abstractly, which begins to decline in middle adulthood
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| Malian is a highly regarded surgeon. She is also very good at dancing for leisure. According to Gardner, she is strong in ________ intelligence. | Bodily-kinesthetic
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| Cognitive Mechanics | The "hardware" of the mind, reflecting the neurophysiological architecture of the brain as developed through evolution, cognitive mechanics involves the speed and accuracy of the processes involving sensory input, visual and motor memory, etc.
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| Cognitive Pragmatics | The culture-based "software" of the mind, cognitive pragmatics include reading, writing, language comprehension, edu qualifications, professional skills, and the self-knowledge and life skills that help us to master or cope with life
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| Brain imaging studies show that which part of the brain is MOST linked with higher intelligence? | Frontal and parietal lobes
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| Wisdom | Expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgment about important matters
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| Intellectual Disability | A condition of limited mental ability in which an individual has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional test of intelligence, and has difficulty adapting to the demands of everyday life
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| Giftedness | Having above-average intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something
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| Many intelligence tests are ________ because they ________. | Culturally biased; reflect the cultures of some test-takers more than others.
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| Creativity | The ability to think in novel and unusual ways and to come up with unique solutions to problems
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| Divergent Thinking | Thinking that produces many answers to the same question; characteristics of creativity
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| Convergent Thinking | Thinking that produces one correct answer; characteristics of the kind of thinking required in conventional intelligence tests
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| Brainstorming | Technique in which individuals are encouraged to come up with creative ideas in a group, play off each other's ideas, and say practically whatever comes to mind that is relevant to a particular issue
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| According to John Horn, the ability to reason abstractly is ________ intelligence. | Fluid
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| What are the five steps in the creative process? | 1. Preparation
2. Incubation
3. Insight
4. Evaluation
5. Elaboration
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| Dr. Anderson is interested in how attention changes with age. He gathers a sample of 5-year-olds and tests them twice a year until they are 30. What type of study is Dr. Anderson conducting? | Longitudinal
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| Leonard has had varied life experiences and learned from mentors. He volunteers with disadvantaged youth and is open to new adventures. Baltes would say that all of these provide supporting conditions for Leonard to develop higher levels of ______ | Wisdom
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| A genetic disorder or lower level of mental functioning caused by brain damage is called ________ intellectual disability. | An organic
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| Highly gifted individuals _________. | Typically have exceptional talents in one or a small limited set of domains
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| What type of thinking do standardized tests in schools measure? | Convergent
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| Which of the following is NOT a characteristic that is typical of creative thinkers? | Rejection of norms
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