social psych exam #2
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| self- control | the ability to subdue immediate desires to achieve long-term goals.
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| strategies to improve self-control | form implementation impression, ensure well-rested, impression management.
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| impression management | the attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen.
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| ingratiation | flattering, praising, and generally tying to make ourselves likable to another person, often of a higher status.
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| self-handicapping | creating obstacles and excuses for ourselves.
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| what are two forms of self-handicapping? | behavioral self-handicapping and reported self-handicapping.
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| behavioral self-handicapping | people act in ways that reduce the likelihood of success so that if they fail, they can blame it on obstacles rather than ability.
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| reported self-handicapping | rather than creating obstacles to success, people devise ready-made excuses in case they fail. ex: saying you don't feel well while taking a test.
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| cognitive dissonance | discomfort people feel when two cognitions (beliefs, attitudes) conflict, or when they behave in ways that are inconsistent with their conception of themselves.
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| what happens when cognitions conflict? | the person's self-image in threatened which induces powerful, upsetting dissonance. Important and provocative social psychological theory.
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| 3 ways to reduce dissonance | change behavior, justify behavior by changing one of the dissonant cognitions, and justify behavior by adding new cognitions.
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| postdecision dissonance | dissonance aroused after making a decision, typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluating the rejected alternatives. "change attitude"
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| "I would have done better if only I would have cheated" is an example of what? | postdecision dissonance
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| more important decisions = | more dissonance
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| greater performance = | more dissonance
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| counter-attitudinal advocacy | stating an opinion or attitude that runs counter to one's private belief or attitude.
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| "Ben Franklin effect" | when we dislike someone, if we do them a favor, we will like them more.
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| dissonance reduction | people may behave either more ethically or less ethically in the future.
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| dissonance | positive view of self inconsistent with dishonest behavior.
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| how can you reduce dissonance? | by changing attitude on cheating for example- "not a big deal, everyone does it."
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| insufficient punishment | the dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in individual's devaluing the forbidden activity or object.
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| self-affirmation theory | the idea that people can reduce threats to their self-esteem by affirming themselves in areas unrelated to the source of the threat.
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| self-evaluation maintenance theory | idea that we experience dissonance when someone close to us outperforms us in an area that is central to our self-esteem.
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| dissonance-reducing . behavior maintains ____? | self-esteem
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| how do you overcome dissonance? | acknowledge mistakes and taking responsibility is easier said than done. Process of self-justification in unconscious, but once we know we can justify our actions, we can monitor our thinking and behavior.
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| attitudes | evaluation of people, objects, and ideas.
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| 3 components of attitudes | 1. affective
2. behavioral
3. cognitive
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| affective attitude | emotional reaction. ex: attitudes about cars- perhaps feel excitement about getting new car.
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| behavioral attitude | actions or observable behavior. ex: drive the car and actually buy it.
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| cognitive attitude | thoughts and beliefs. ex: admire hybrid engine and fuel efficiency.
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| genetic origins of attitudes | identical twins share more attitudes than fraternal twins.
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| indirect function of our genes | temperament, personality.
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| cognitively based attitude | an attitude based primarily on people's beliefs about the properties of an attitude object.
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| affectively based attitude | an attitude based more on people's feelings and values than on their beliefs about the nature of an attitude object.
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| classical conditioning | a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is paired with a neutral stimulus.
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| operant conditioning | freely chosen behaviors increase or decrease when followed by reinforcement or punishment.
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| behaviorally based attitudes | an attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object.
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| self-perception theory | people infer their attitudes from their behavior only under certain conditions.
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| explicit attitudes | attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report.
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| implicit attitudes | attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious.
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| what are implicit attitudes more dependent on? | early childhood experiences.
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| what are explicit attitudes more dependent on? | recent experiences.
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| measurement of attitudes | Implicit Attitudes Test (IAT)
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| fear-arousing communications | persuasive messages that attempt to change people's attitudes by arousing their fears.
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| types of attitude changing techniques: | -if an attitude is cognitively based- try to change it with rational arguments.
-if it's affectively based- try to change it with emotional appeals.
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| types of advertising | -split cable market tests
-public health campaigns- meta-analysis on ads and substance use among youth.
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| subliminal messages | words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence people's judgements, attitudes, and behavior.
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| attitude inoculation | making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the argument against their position.
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| self-awareness theory | the idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values.
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| nonverbal communication | how people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words.
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| example of nonverbal communication | facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position, movement, use of touch, gaze.
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| universal face expressions | happy, sad, disgust, fear, surprise, anger.
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| affect blend | facial expressions in which one part of the face registers one emotion while another part of the face registers a different emotion.
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| Schachter's theory/two-factor theory of emotion | 1. experience physiological arousal
2. seek an appropriate explanation for it
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| task-contingent reward | rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done.
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| performance contingent reward | rewards that are based on how well we perform a task.
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| where do attitudes come from? | an experience or upbringing.
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| Misattribution of arousal | making mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do.
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| display rules for America | men discouraged from emotional displays like crying, women allowed.
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| display rules for Japan | women discouraged from displaying uninhibited smile.
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| eye contact/gaze America | suspicious when people do not look them in the eye.
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| Nigeria/Puerto Rico/Thailand | direct eye contact considered disrespectful.
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| emblems | not universal, nonverbal gestures that have well-understood meaning within a given culture. ex) OK sign
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| thin-slicing | drawing meaningful conclusions about another person's personality or skills based on an extremely brief sample of behavior.
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| primary effect | when it comes to forming impressions, the first traits we perceive in others influence how we view information that we learn about them later.
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| belief perseverance | the tendency to stick with an initial judgement even in the face of new information that should prompt us to reconsider.
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| Attribution Theory | the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people's behavior.
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| internal attribution | infer a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person. ex) attitude, character, personality.
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| external attribution | infer a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation. Assume most people would respond the same way in that situation.
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| internal = | dispositional attribution
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| external = | situational attribution
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| covariation model: internal vs. external | a theory that states that to form an attribution about what cause a person's behavior, we systematically note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors & whether or not the behavior occurs.
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| consensus information | the extent to which other people behave the same way toward the same stimulus as the actor does.
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| distinctness information | the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to a different stimuli.
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| consistency information | the extent to which behavior between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances.
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| fundamental attribution error | tend to make internal attributions for other people's behavior and underestimate the role of situational factors.
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| perceptual salience | the seeming importance of information that is the focus of people's attention.
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| manipulating perceptual salience | whatever actor the observer faced, they felt had a better argument.
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| two-step attribution process | 1. make an internal attribution- occurs quickly
2. adjust attribution by considering the situation- may fail to make enough adjustment in 2nd step, requires effort.
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| self-serving attributions | explanations for one's successes that credit internal, dispositional factors, and explanations for one's failures that blame external, situational factors.
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| belief in a just world | type of defense attribution, the assumption that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
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| bias blind spot | believe other people more susceptible to attributional biases compared to self; people realize biases in attribution can occur.
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| looking glass self | we adopt other people's views in some circumstances. We adopt other's views when we want to get along with them.
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| strategies to improve self control | contingency statements, arrange environments, form implementation impression, ensure well-rested.
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| illusion of irrevocability | when decisions are permanent, dissonance increases and motivation to reduce dissonance increases.
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| 3 reasons lowballing works | 1. sense of commitment
2. sense of commitment triggers anticipation of an exciting event.
3. price only slightly higher elsewhere.
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| self-evaluation maintenance theory | idea that we experience dissonance when someone close to us outperforms in an area that is central to our self-esteem.
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| fear-arousing communication | moderate amounts of fear work best, provide information on how to reduce fear.
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| reactance theory | idea that when people feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state of reactance is aroused, which they can reduce by performing the threatened behavior.
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