Treatment of Abnormal Behaviour
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| Psychotherapy | Treatment involving psychological techniques. Consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth.
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| Biomedical Therapy | Prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person’s physiology. Prescribed drugs or procedures that act directly on a patient’s nervous system.
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| Eclectic Approach | An approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client’s problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy.
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| Psychotherapist | A trained therapist who uses psychological techniques to assist someone to overcome a psychological disorder or mental distress.
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| Psychoanalysis | Freud believed the patient’s free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences – and the therapist’s interpretations of them – released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.
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| Free Association | Introduced by Sigmund Freud, it involves the uncensored reporting of any thoughts that come to mind. A central therapeutic technique of psychoanalysis.
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| Resistance | Refers to the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material during therapy. A patient’s hesitation to free associate is most likely a sign of resistance. Supports and maintains the process of repression.
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| Interpretation | In psychoanalysis, the analyst’s noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviours and events in order to promote insight. An important component of psychoanalysis is dream analysis.
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| Transference | Refers to a client’s expression toward a therapist of feelings linked with earlier life relationships. Psychoanalysts view patient transference as a helpful aid in the process of therapy.
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| Criticisms of Psychoanalysis | Criticized for offering interpretations that cannot be proven or disproven. Criticized for being too expensive and-time consuming. Psychoanalysts would be most likely to discourage patients from discontinuing psychotherapy.
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| Psychodynamic Therapy | Views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and that seeks to enhance self-insight. Briefer than traditional psychoanalysis. Focuses on recurrent patterns in their interpersonal relationships.
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| Interpersonal Psychotherapy | A brief variation of psychodynamic therapy that has been effective in treating depression. Primarily focuses on helping people improve their relationship skills.
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| Insight Therapies | A variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person’s awareness of underlying motives and defenses. Psychoanalytic therapies and humanistic therapies.
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| Humanistic Therapies | Emphasize the importance of self-awareness for psychological adjustment. Likely to teach clients to take more responsibility for their own feelings and actions.
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| Client-Centered Therapy | Developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients’ growth. Patients’ discover their own ways of effectively dealing with their difficulties.
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| Active Listening | Empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers’ client-centered therapy.
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| Unconditional Positive Regard | A caring, accepting nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance. Client-centered therapies provide patients with feelings of unconditional acceptance.
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| Behaviour Therapy | Therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviours. Old learning led to the development of a problem, new learning can fix it. Action based.
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| Classical Conditioning Therapies | Maladaptive symptoms are usually considered to be conditioned responses.
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| Counterconditioning | Behaviour therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviours. Include exposure therapies and aversive conditioning.
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| Exposure Therapies | Behavioural techniques, such as systematic desensitization and virtual reality exposure therapy, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actual situations) to the things they fear and avoid.
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| Systematic Desensitization | A type of exposure therapy that associates pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.
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| Progressive Relaxation | Relaxing one muscle group after another until one achieves a completely relaxed state of comfort. Systematic desensitization is based on the idea that relaxation facilitates the elimination of fear.
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| Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy | An anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to electronic simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking. Effective in the treatment of phobias.
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| Aversive Conditioning | A type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behaviour (such as drinking alcohol). Involves associating unwanted behaviours with unpleasant experiences.
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| Behaviour Modification | Patients’ actions are influenced by controlling the consequences of those actions. Reinforces closer approximations of desired behaviours and withholds reinforcements for undesired behaviours.
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| Token Economy | An operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behaviour and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats. Approach has helped children with autism function effectively in school.
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| Criticisms of Behaviour Modification | Criticized for violating clients’ rights to personal freedom and self-determination.
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| Strengths of Behaviour Modification | Institutionalized patients can be weaned from a token economy by shifting them to other rewards common to life outside of the institution. Maintaining appropriate patient behaviour with positive rewards is more humane than relying on punishments.
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| Cognitive Therapies | Therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking. Based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions. People are often disturbed because of their negative interpretations of events.
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| Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy | A confrontational therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that vigorously challenges people’s illogical self-defeating attitudes and assumptions. Teaching people to stop blaming themselves for failures and negative circumstances beyond their control.
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| Beck's Depression Therapy | A form of cognitive therapy that persuades depressed patients to reverse their catastrophizing beliefs about themselves and their futures. Uses gentle questioning to reveal depressed clients’ irrational thinking.
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| Stress Inoculation Training | Focuses on helping people to replace negative self-talk with more positive comments.
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| Cognitive Behaviour Therapy | A popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behaviour therapy (changing behaviour). Aims to modify both self-defeating thinking and maladaptive actions.
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| Group Therapy | Therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits from group interactions. Examines a person’s role within a social system and encourages clients to improve their communication skills.
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| Family Therapy | Therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual’s unwanted behaviours as influenced by, or directed at, other family members. The belief that no person is an island is a fundamental assumption of family therapy.
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| Client Perspectives on Psychotherapy | Since people enter psychotherapy during a period of life crisis, they tend to overestimate the effectiveness of psychotherapy.
Clients convince themselves that they didn’t waste their money. Clients are satisfied with the effectiveness of therapy.
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| Clinician Perspectives on Psychotherapy | Therapists overestimate the effectiveness of psychotherapy because they keep in touch with clients that are satisfied with the treatment they received. Clients emphasize their problems at the start of therapy and their well-being at the end of therapy.
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| Placebo Effect | The beneficial consequence of a person’s expecting that a treatment will be therapeutic.
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| Regression Toward the Mean | Refers to the tendency for extraordinary or unusual events to be followed by more ordinary events. This phenomenon contributes to inflated perceptions of the effectiveness of psychotherapy.
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| Hans Eysenck | In the 1950s, challenged the effectiveness of psychotherapy because it appeared to be no more beneficial than no treatment at all.
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| Randomized Clinical Trials | The best outcome studies for evaluating the effectiveness of psychotherapy typically use randomized clinical trials. The best psychotherapy outcome studies are randomized clinical trials comparing treatment groups with control groups.
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| Meta-Analysis | Refers to a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different studies. The most convincing evidence for the effectiveness of psychotherapy comes from meta-analyses of psychotherapeutic outcome studies.
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| Evidenced Based Practice | Clinical decision making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences.
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| Energy Therapy | Based on the belief that there are energy fields that flow through and around your body. Energy therapies have received little or no scientific support.
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| Facilitated Communication | A form of augmentative and alternative communication in which someone physically supports an autistic person. Facilitated communication is a scientifically unsupported treatment approach and should be avoided.
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| Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing | Rapidly moving one’s eyes while recalling traumatic experiences.
Originally developed for the treatment of anxiety and similar to systematic desensitization. Studies indicate that the value of EMDR is due to the effectiveness of exposure therapy.
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| Light Exposure Therapies | Sparks activity in a brain region that influences the body’s arousal. Developed to relieve symptoms of depression. Demonstrated to provide relief for those who suffer from seasonal affective disorder.
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| Benefits of Psychotherapies | A sense of hope (illustrated by the placebo effect); a new perspective; a caring relationship.
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| Therapeutic Alliance | A bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and a client, who work together constructively to overcome the client’s problem.
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| Culture and Psychotherapy | Matching Asian-American clients with counselors who share their cultural values facilitates the therapeutic alliance. Highly religious people may prefer and benefit from therapists with similar religious beliefs.
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| Resilience | The personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma.
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| Preventative Mental Health | Based on the assumption that psychological disorders result from stressful social situations. Minimize psychological disorders by reducing child abuse, illiteracy, poverty and other demoralizing situations.
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| Drug Therapies | Biomedical treatments used to treat psychological disorders that result from chemical abnormalities. The biomedical treatment that is most widely used today.
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| Psychopharmacology | Involves the study of how drugs affect mind and behaviour.
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| Double-Blind Procedure | A procedure in which neither patient nor health care staff know whether a given patient is receiving a drug or a placebo. Enable researchers to assess the extent to which drug therapy outcomes are attributable to the placebo effect.
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| Antipsychotic Drugs | Drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder. Produces therapeutic effects by blocking receptors sites for dopamine.
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| Chlorpromazine | Dampens responsiveness to irrelevant stimuli in schizophrenia patients with positive symptoms. Reduces paranoia and hallucinations.
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| Tardive Dyskinesia | Involuntary movements of the facial muscles, tongue, and limbs that includes sluggishness, tremors, and twitches similar to those of Parkinson’s disease. Associated with long-term use of drugs that occupy certain dopamine receptor sites.
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| Antianxiety Drugs | Drugs used to control anxiety and agitation. Designed to depress the central nervous system.
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| Xanax | An antianxiety drug. Prescribed in order to help overcome feelings of nervous apprehension and an inability to relax.
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| Ativan | An antianxiety drug. Prescribed in order to help clients overcome fears.
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| D-Cycloserine | An antianxiety drug. Prescribed to enhance the benefits of exposure therapy and helps relieve the symptoms of PTSD and OCD.
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| Withdrawal Antianxiety Drugs | Unpleasant withdrawal symptoms following the discontinued use of an anxiety drug are indicative of physiological dependence. Discontinued use of antianxiety drugs leads to increased anxiety and difficulty sleeping.
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| Antidepressant Drugs | Drugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Several widely used antidepressant drugs are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors – SSRIs.
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| SSRI | Prescribed to elevate mood and arousal. Slow the normal reabsorption of excess serotonin from synapses. Prozac, Zoloft and Paxil are SSRIs.
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| Dual Action Drugs | Block the reuptake or breakdown of both serotonin and norepinephrine. Increases the availability of serotonin and norepinephrine. The increased availability of serotonin produces neurogenesis.
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| Lithium | An effective mood-stabilizing drug. Has been found to be especially effective in the treatment of bipolar disorder.
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| Depakote | An drug originally used to treat epilepsy that has more recently been found effective in the control of manic episodes.
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| Electroconvulsive Therapy | A biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient. The procedure can result in a loss of memory and seizures.
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| Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation | The application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity. Treatment of depression. Does not trigger seizures and memory loss. Triggers the long-term potentiation of frontal lobe nerve cells.
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| Deep Brain Stimulation | Involves the implantation of electrodes to inhibit activity in the area of the cortex that triggers negative emotions. Has been reported to provide relief from depression.
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| Psychosurgery | Surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behaviour. The least used biomedical intervention for changing behaviour.
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| Lobotomy | Once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. Inserting a medical instrument through each eye socket. Cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain. Patients become lethargic.
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| Therapeutic Lifestyle Change | Aerobic exercise, adequate sleep, light exposure and social engagement are important components of therapeutic life-style change.
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