Personality Psychology
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| Personality | An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. The concept of personality embodies the notion of behavioural consistency.
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| Sigmund Freud | A physician interested in unconscious conflicts. He believed that certain troubling symptoms could be traced to painful unconscious memories that resulted from psychological processes.
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| Free Association | In psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing. It is a method designed to explore the unconscious.
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| Psychoanalysis | Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts. The techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tension.
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| Unconscious | According to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.
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| Preconscious | Forgotten memories that we can easily recall.
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| Manifest Content | The remembered events and images in our dreams.
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| Latent Content | The symbolic meaning and censored expression of the dream.
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| Superego | The part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.
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| Ego | The largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality.
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| Reality Principle | The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.
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| Id | A reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual aggressive drives.
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| Pleasure Principle | The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.
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| Psychosexual Stages | The childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones. Freud believed that personality forms when children pass through psychosexual stages.
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| Erogenous Zone | Distinct pleasure sensitive areas of the body. During early psychosexual stages, the id’s psychic energy is focused on erogenous zones.
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| Oral Stage | Pleasure centers on the mouth-sucking, biting, chewing.
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| Anal Stage | Pleasures focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control.
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| Phallic Stage | Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings.
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| Latency Stage | Dormant sexual feelings.
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| Genital | Maturation of sexual interests
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| Oedipus Complex | During the phallic stage, a boy’s unconscious sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father. Boy’s fear of castration is closely associated with the Oedipus Complex.
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| Electra Complex | During the phallic stage, girls experience unconscious sexual desires toward their fathers.
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| Identification | The process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parent’s values into their developing superegos. A boy’s identification with his father during the phallic stage, illustrates the process of conflict resolution.
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| Fixation | According to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved. Freud suggested that orally fixated adults are especially likely to exhibit passive dependence.
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| Defense Mechanisms | In psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality. They prevent threatening impulses from being consciously recognized.
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| Repression | In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. Repression underlies all other defense mechanisms.
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| Regression | Coping with anxiety by retreating to behaviour patterns characteristic of an earlier more infantile stage.
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| Projection | Disguising unacceptable, unconscious impulses by attributing them to others.
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| Displacement | Shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person.
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| Denial | Refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities.
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| Reaction Formation | Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites.
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| Rationalization | Self-justifying explanations replace the real unconscious reasons for actions.
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| Sublimation | The transformation of unacceptable impulses into socially valued motivations.
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| Psychodynamic Theories | Modern-day approaches that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences.
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| Alfred Adler | A Neo-Freudian that coined the term inferiority complex.
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| Karen Horney | A Neo-Freudian that emphasized that childhood anxiety is caused by a sense of helplessness.
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| Neo-Freudians | Placed greater emphasis on the role of social interactions than Freud. Disagreed with Freud about the importance of childhood sexual instincts. Assume that childhood experiences have long-term consequences for our social attachment styles.
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| Collective Unconscious | A shared reservoir of memory traces from our species history.
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| Carl Jung | Argued that many cultures share stories containing a “hero” character such as King Arthur of Great Britain. Emphasized the importance of the collective unconscious in personality functioning.
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| Projective Test | A personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics.
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| Thematic Apperception Test | A projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.
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| Rorschach Inkblot Test | The most widely used projective test, a set of 10 meaningless inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.
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| Criticisms of Psychoanalysis | Contemporary psychological research contradicts Freud’s ideas that painful experiences are commonly repressed. Criticized for proposing that development is fixed in childhood. Criticized because it offers few testable hypotheses.
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| Humanistic Theories | View personality with a focus on the potential for healthy growth potential. It emphasized the importance of self-determination and self-realization.
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| Self-Actualization | According to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved. The motivation to fulfill one’s potential.
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| Self-Transcendence | A sense of purpose in life that goes beyond fulfilling one’s own potential for growth and self-actualization.
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| Self-Actualized People | Especially likely to be open and spontaneous. Least likely to experience defensive self-esteem. Least likely to be highly conforming.
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| Carl Rogers | Emphasized that an individual’s personal growth is promoted by interactions with others who are genuine, accepting, and empathic.
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| Unconditional Positive Regard | An attitude of total acceptance toward another person.
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| Self-Concept | All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?” Rogers suggested that self-concept is a central feature of personality. When the ideal and real self are nearly alike, then the self-concept is positive.
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| Criticisms of Humanistic Theories | Criticized for offering concepts that are vague and subjective. Criticized for encouraging individual selfishness and self-indulgence. Criticized for underestimating the value of social obligations.
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| Trait | A characteristic pattern of behaviour or a disposition to feel and act (conscious motives), as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.
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| Trait Theory | Interested in describing and classifying the many ways in which individuals may differ from one another. Trait theorists are more concerned with describing personality than with explaining it.
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| Myers-Briggs Type Indicator | Classifies people according to personality types identified by Carl Jung. Used for career-counseling and work-team development to help identify individual’s personality types. Describes personality in flattering terms.
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| Factor Analysis | A statistical procedure used to identify clusters of correlated test items that tap basic components of personality, such as outgoingness, talkativeness, and sociability that reflects extroversion.
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| Hans and Sybil Eysenck | Use the metaphor of a continuum to describe personality.
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| Biology (Personality) | The impact of biologically inherited temperaments on
personality. A frontal lobe area involved in restraining behaviour is less active in extraverts than introverts. Personality differences
among birds are genetically inherited.
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| Personality Inventory | A questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviours. Designed to assess several traits
at once.
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| Empirically Derived Test | A personality inventory that utilizes only those items that have been shown to differentiate particular groups of people. The MMPI is an empirically derived personality inventory.
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| Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): | The most widely researched and clinically
used of all personality tests. It is an empirically derived, objective test. Originally developed to identify emotional
disorders , this test is now used for other screening purposes.
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| Barnum Effect | The tendency to accept favourable descriptions of one’s personality that could really be applied to anyone. As personality descriptions become more positive, it becomes stronger illustrating the self-serving bias.
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| Stock Spiel | In some ways each of us is just like everyone else.
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| Big Five | Refers to basic trait dimensions. Personality factors are: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism. Has the advantage of providing a comprehensive personality description.
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| Person-Situation Controversy | Involves a debate regarding the influence of environment and traits on behaviour. People’s behaviour is more strongly influenced by temporary external influences or by enduring inner influences.
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| Criticisms of Trait Theory | People’s scores on an extraversion test do not neatly predict how sociable they will be on any given occasion. Questions the validity of personality test scores. Underestimates the variability of behaviour from situation to situation.
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| Walter Mischel | Believed psychologists should be cautious about emphasizing the consistency of personality traits. People’s scores on personality tests often fail to predict their behaviour in real life situations.
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| Social Cognitive Perspective | Views behaviour as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits (including their thinking) and their social context.
Developed by Albert Bandura. The personality assessments used are observing and evaluating.
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| Behavioural Approach (Personality) | In personality theory, this perspective focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development.
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| Reciprocal Determinism | The interacting influences of behaviour, internal cognition, and environment. Involves multidirectional influences among behaviours, internal personal factors, and environmental events.
An external locus of control refers to a cognitive factor.
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| Biopsychosocial Approach (Personality) | The study of personality benefits from the use of multiple levels of analysis.
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| Pessimism | Students who perceive that their low test scores due to their own lack of ability illustrates pessimistic attribution. The immune system is likely to be dampened by pessimism.
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| Optimism | The trait of optimism is most closely related to a strong sense of personal control. Excessive self-confidence is especially likely to be facilitated by the difficulty in recognizing one’s own incompetence.
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| Positive Psychology | Martin Seligman’s scientific study of optimal human functioning.
Promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive. Emphasizes the use of scientific methods.
Examines positive emotions, traits, and institutions.
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| Behaviour in Situations (Social-Cognitive) | The best way to predict a person’s future behaviour is to observe that person’s behaviour in various relevant situations. The best way to predict a person’s performance is to assess past performance in situations involving similar responsibilities.
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| Criticisms of Social-Cognitive Perspective | A criticism has been that it underestimates the importance of enduring personality traits.
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| Self | In contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions. Out motivation to achieve success and avoid failure is most directly influenced by our possible selves.
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| Spotlight Effect | Overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us).
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| Self-Esteem | One’s feelings of high or low self-worth.
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| Self-Efficacy | One’s sense of competence and effectiveness.
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| High Self-Esteem | Individuals with high self-esteem are more likely than those with low self-esteem to work persistently at difficult tasks. People with high self-esteem are less likely than those with low self-esteem to succumb to conformity pressures.
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| Low Self-Esteem | Low self-esteem is associated with unhappiness. A person whose self-esteem is momentarily threatened is especially likely to criticize the shortcomings of others.
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| Self-Serving Bias | A readiness to perceive oneself favourably. Associated with high-self esteem. The tendency to accept more personal responsibility for one’s successes than for one’s failures best illustrates self-serving bias.
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| Narcissism | Excessive self-love and self-absorption. Exaggerated feelings of self-importance. Psychologist Jean Twenge refers to today’s new generation as Generation Me because it expresses more narcissism
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| Defensive Self-Esteem | Self-confidence that is easily punctured by criticism.
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| Secure Self-Esteem | Accepting ourselves without undue dependence on the approval of others.
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| Individualism | Giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications. Emphasize independence. Innovation and creativity, religious and ethnic diversity.
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| Collectivism | Giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly.
Emphasize interdependence, social harmony and family loyalty. Avoid embarrassing others, value modesty, low divorce.
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| Japanese Students vs. American Students | Japanese students are more likely than American student to describe themselves in terms of social identity. American students are more likely than Japanese students to describe themselves in terms of academic abilities and personality traits.
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