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Term

Definition

Development Psychology

Branch of psychology that systematically focuses on the physical, mental, and social changes that occur throughout the life cycle

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Development Psychology Example

Research that focuses on the long-term effects of child-rearing practices on the psychological adjustment of offspring

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Three Major Concerns of Developmental Psychology

Nature and Nurture, Stability and Change, and Continuity and Stages

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Three Major Concern Example

Nature vs Nurture refers to the debate about the relative contribution of genetic inheritance and experiences in our development

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Sperm Cells

Sperm Cells begins later in life compared to Egg Cells, boys first begin during puberty, human sperm cells are smaller then egg cells

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Zygote

Fertilized egg; two week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

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Zygote Example

Nutrients and Oxygen is transferred to a fetus through the placenta. It develops from the outer cells of the this

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Embryo

Developing human organism from about two weeks after fertilization through the second month

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Embryo Example

Hearts begins to beat during the embryonic period of prenatal development

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Fetus

Developing human organism from 9 weeks till birth

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Fetus Example

Human like features start to develop around 9 weeks after conception

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Teratogen

Harmful chemicals or viruses that can be transferred from a mother to her developing fetus, can cross the placental border and harm an unborn child

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Risk for Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Pregnant women drinks alcohol heavily, she puts her unborn child at risk for this. Symptoms include brain abnormalities

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Risk for Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Example

Pregnant rats drink alcohol their offspring display liking for the smell for the odor of alcohol.

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Drug Addiction While Pregnant

Her baby will be born an addict

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Smoking During Pregnancy

Can cause a newborn baby to be underweight

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Rooting Reflex

A baby's tendency to open the mouth in search of a nipple when touched on the cheek

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Sucking Reflex

A newborn reflex that involves the steps of tonguing, swallowing, and breathing

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Habituation

Decreased responsive to a stimulus after repeated exposure, to test newborns can visually discriminate between various shapes and color this is used. Research indicates 4 month year old possess visual memory capabilities

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Habituation Example

A baby is startled by a telephone ring, but with each subsequent ring they seem less reactive

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Novelty-Preference Procedure

Have been discovered by assessing infants' habituation. Displays that babies like adults, focus on the face rather than the body first when viewing images

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Novelty-Preference Procedure Example

Research on the perceptual abilities of newborns indicates they look at face like objects rather then a bull's eye pattern

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The Competent Newborn

Typically prefer their mother's voice because they become familiar with their mother's voice when they are born. 3 week old babies can distinguish their mother's voice from that of a female stranger. Babies can distinguish mother breast gauze

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Brain development Part One

Immaturity of an infant's nervous system is demonstrated by its limited neural networks, from age 3 to 6 the brain's neural networks sprout most rapidly in frontal lobes,

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Brain development Part Two

The association areas are the last cortical areas to fully develop their neural networks

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Process of Pruning

Excess neural connections in the brain's association areas are reduced through this

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Maturation

Biological growth processes that are relatively uninfluenced by experience. Maturation is to nature as Education is to nurture. The ordered sequence of motor developmental is largely due to this. Motor development is universal

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Maturation Example

Hard to train a baby to walk before 10 months, and is apparent to understanding the absence of bladder control among 2 year old

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Maturation and Infant Memory Part One

Poor memory of early life results from a baby's lack of relative maturation. The lack of neural interconnections in the association areas at the time of birth contributes to infantile amnersia

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Maturation and Infant Memory Part Two

Young children also do not possess the language skills for organizing their early life experiences

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Maturation and Infant Memory Example

3 year old who experience a fire evacuation caused by a burning popcorn marker are unable to remember the cause of this vivid event when they are 10-years-old due to amnesia

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Jean Piaget

Studied how children develop cognition - their abilities to think, know, and remember. Was convinced that the mind of a child develops through a series of stages

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Schema

A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. People's conceptual frameworks for understanding their experiences

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Assimilation

Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas. This involves interpreting new experiences in terms of one's current understanding

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Accommodation

Adjusting current schemas in order to make sense of new experiences.

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Accommodation Example

Thinking all nurses are young females, until you meet a male nurse

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Sensorimotor Stage (Age 0-2)

Child begins to interact with the environment, understands world by primarily by grasping and sucking easily available objects and also observing the effects of their own actions on other people, objects, and events

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Preoperational Stage (Age 2-7)

The child begins to represent the world symbolically, can represent objects with words and images but cannot reason with logic

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Concrete Operational Stage (Age 7-11)

Acquire mental operations needed to comprehend such things as mathematical transformations and conservation. Think logically about events first develops, unlikely to think hypothetically

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Concrete Operational Stage Example

A child comprehends that division is the reverse of multiplication

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Formal Operational Stage (Age 12-Adulthood)

People are first able to reason abstractly and think hypothetically

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Object Permanence

The awareness things still exist even when they are not perceived

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Egocentrism

The difficulty perceiving things from another person's point-of-view. Cognitively limited

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Egocentrism Example

A tendency to exaggerate the extent to which our own opinions are share by others

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Conservation

The principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

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Piaget's Theory and Current Thinking

Underestimated the cognitive capacities of infants, current research on cognitive development indicates that mental skills develop earlier than Piaget believed.

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Piaget's Theory and Current Thinking Example

Infants see 3 jumps from a puppet on a stage show surprise when there is only two

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Piaget Overestimated

Young children's egocentrism

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Theory of Mind

Children's ability to infer other people's intentions and feelings

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Theory of Mind example

Preschoool children can emphasize with classmates that are sad illustrates preoperational children have developed this. Research by Premack and Woodruff described chimpanzee's theory of mind by their ability to read intentions

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Autism Part One

A disorder characterized by deficient social interaction and impaired theory of mind, Simon Baron-Cohen has proposed that autism is indicative of an inborn male systemizing tendency

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Autism Part Two

Men over 40 have a higher frequency of fathering a child with autism than do men under 30 because they have a higher frequency of random genetic mutations in their sperm-producing cells

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Autism Example

Recognizing whether someone's facial expression is conveying a happy smile or a self-satisfied smirk hard for people with autism. People with autism exhibit less motor neuron activity when watching other hand movements

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Reflecting on Piaget's Theory

He underestimated the continuity of cognitive development.

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Reflecting on Piaget's Theory Example

4 year old are not completely egocentric and 5 year old can exhibit some understanding of conservation

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Lev Vygotsky

Suggested that children's ability to solve problems is enhanced by inner speech. Talking to themselves enables children to control their behaviors and emotions and master new skills

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Stranger Anxiety

At about 8 months, children become increasingly likely to react to newcomers with tears and distress. The acquisition of a sense of object permanence is most closely associated with stranger anxiety. Infants cannot assimilate new faces to their schemas

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Attachment

The powerful survival impulse that leads infants to seek closeness with their caregivers. Providing children with a save haven in times of stress contributes directly to secure attachment

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Attachment Example

18 month year old, Justin follows his mother around the house, clinging tightly to her when he is frightened

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Harlow Study of Monkey's

Raised with artificial mothers suggest that mother-infant bonds result primarily from mothers providing infants with body contact. Monkeys prefer a non nourishing cloth mother over a wire nourishing mother

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Harlow Study of Monkey's Example

Body contact promotes attachment. Placed in strange situation without their artificial mother, infant monkeys demonstrated signs of insecure attachments

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Critical Period

A phase in where certain events have a particularly strong impact on development

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Imprinting Period

The process by which certain birds from attachments during a critical period very early in life

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Imprinting Period Example

A duckling demonstrates attachment to a bouncing ball

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Mere Exposure

Unlike ducklings, children do not imprint. Their fondness for certain people is fostered by this

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Familiarity

Is important for the development of attachment bonds between human infants and their mothers

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Human Infants With Critical

They do not have this for mother-infant attachments

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Secure Attachment

Marked by distress, when separated from caregivers, but assured caregivers will return. Feel secure and able to depend on adult caregivers. Responsive parenting contributes most positively to the development of this.

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Secure Attachment Example

Eunice is not overly afraid of strangers but she clearly prefers being held by her mother than anyone else

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Ambivalent Attachment

Distressed when caregiver leaves, but not reassured or comforted from return. May reject the caregiver by refusing comfort or display direct aggression toward parent

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Ambivalent Attachment Example

In a pleasant but unfamiliar setting, infants with an insecure maternal attachment are most likely to show indifference to their mother's return after a brief attachment

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Avoidant Attachment

Avoid caregivers. Might not reject attention from a parent, but does not seek out comfort or contact

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Disorganized Attachment

Shows a clear lack of attachment. Seems confused or apprehensive in the presence of a caregiver

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Secure Attachment Description

65%. Secure, Explorative Happy. Quick,sensitive, consistent. Believes and trusts that his/her needs will be met

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Avoidant Attachment Description

20%. Not very explorative, emotionally distant. Distant, disengaged. Subconsciously believes that his/her needs probably wont be met

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Ambivalent Attachment Description

10-15%. Anxious, Insecure, Angry. Inconsistent; sometimes sensitive, sometimes neglectful. Cannot rely on his/her needs being met

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Disorganized Attachment

10-15%. Depressed, angry completely passive, non responsive. Extreme erratic Frightened or frightening, passive or intrusive. Severely confused with no strategy to have his/her needs met

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Young children with divorced or unmarried parents

Have been deprived of prenatal care and attention which puts them at increased risk for insecure attachment

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Mother feed their children when they show signs of hunger, while some fail to meet demands of the baby this causes

differences in attachment

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Babies who are unable to predict how their parents will react to their cries for care and attention

are likely to show signs of insecure attachment

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Infant temperament

affects attachment. There is evidence that easy relaxed infants develop secure attachments more readily than difficult emotionally intense babies

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Temperament

A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensit. Our enduring personality traits are first evident in our different these. This is supposedly stable over time. Heredity predisposes individual differences.

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Temperament Analogy

Nature is to nurture as temperament is to responsive parenting

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Temperament Example

An infant's this refers most directly to its emotional excitability. Difficult babies with an intense and highly reactive of this tend to be irritable and unpredictable

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Responsiveness and Attachment

Children of responsive parenting develop secure and form a lifelong attitude of basic trust toward the world. Securely attached people exhibit less fear of failure.

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Responsiveness and Attachment Example

Researchers believe that adult styles of romantic love correspond with childhood patterns of attachment. Fathers were most involved in parenting tend to achieve more in school

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Harlow's Observations

Monkeys in total isolation became incapable of mating upon reaching sexual maturity. Have been observed to become very fearful or aggressive when brought into close monkeys the same age

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Golden Hamsters

That are repeatedly threatened and attacked while young grow up to be cowards when caged with same-sized hamsters. They attacked hamsters suffered long-term changes in brain chemistry

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Research on most abusive parents

They were battered and neglected as children

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Research on most abusive parents example

Edith abuses both her 3-year-old and 1-year-old daughters. Her behavior is most likely related to a lack of an early and secure attachment to her own parents

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Severe and Prolonged Sexual Abuse

Places children at risk for substance abuse

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Disruption of Attachment Part One

Foster care that moves children around through a series of foster families is most likely to result in this.

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Disruption of Attachment Part Two

Infants 6 to 16 months were removed from foster homes to adoptive homes, they typically showed initial distress in infancy but no subsequent maladjustment at age 10

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Family Poverty

Children who has this have an increased likelihood of receiving both lower quality day care and authoritarian parenting.

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Problem Behaviors

More likely to be associated with a child's temperament than with the amount of time the child spends in day care.

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Self-Concept

A typical 6 month year old baby looks into the mirror they are likely to reach it thinking it is another baby. Child must have self concept to recognize its face

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Self-Concept Example

Researchers dap lipstick on the of a 2 year-old and then allow them to see their face in the mirror, the child is most likely to touch its nose.

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Self Esteem Differences

No differences in self-esteem scores of children who are adoptees rather than non-adoptees. Compared with others their own age children who from a positive self-concept are more likely to be sociable

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Permissive Parent

Is highly supportive but makes few rules and trusts rather monitors "I trust you'll do the right thing"

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Authoritative Parent

Is highly supportive and closely monitors and sets rules. "I care, and I'll give you freedom you earn; but, for safety-related issues you do as I say

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Uninvolved Parent

Sets few rules, does not monitor and offers little active support. "Kids will be kids- you'll learn from your mistakes"

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Authoritarian Parent

Sets many rules and closely monitors but offers little support. "You'll do as I say" Rules, Obedience, and Inflexible.

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Authoritative Parents Style

More responsive, are likely to have children with high self-esteem and self-reliant. Discuss and negotiate familyrules leading their children to be self-reliant

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Authoritative Parents Style Example

The Albertsons establish and enforce rules for their children to follow. Give reasons for the rules and invite their teenagers to join discussions when new rules are being made

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Parent Behavior is One Factor

That influences child behavior. Children raised in the same family are not especially likely to have similar personalities, we should be cautious about attributing personality to parental influences

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Children's Temperament Influence

Parent's child-rearing practices we should not blame parents for our own dysfunctional characteristics.

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Peer Influence

Can most effectively increase their influence on their children by helping to select their children's neighborhoods and schools. Peers are chosen who share their own attitudes and interests

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Peer Influence in Evolutionary Perspective

That our sensitivity to our peer influence is genetically predisposed because it has facilitated the process of human mating.

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Peer Influence Example

In comparison to parental influence, peer influence is more likely to affect a child's English accent.

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Parents in Westernized Cultures are more likely rather than parents in Asian Cultures

To encourage children to value nonconformity

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Compared with Asian and African parents

Westernized parents are more likely to teach their children to value personal independence

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Parents in Asian cultures more likely than parents in Westernized Cultures

To encourage children to participate in household activities

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In comparison with Westernized culutres

Children in many Asian cultures grow up with a strong sense of social connectdness

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Compared with men

Woman experience a greater risk to eating disorders

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Compared with the average man

The average woman is more vulnerable to anxiety and depression

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In everyday behavior

men are less likely than women to smile at others

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Globally

more men than women are in political leadership positions

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Men and Women

are most likely to differ from aggressiveness

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More men then women

engage in fist fights

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The gender gap in aggression is least likely to pertain

to spreading false rumors about the another person

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Gender differences in physical aggression

are greatest in cultures characterized by gender inequality

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The Male Answer Syndrome

suggests that males are less likely than females to demonstrate social modesty

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Compared with men

women are more likely to talk with others to explore relationships and show obvious signs of interdependence

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Compared with males

females are more likely to base their sense of personal identity on their social relationships

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Women are more likely then men

to "tend and befriend"

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Prenatal Testosterone Secretions

exert one of their earliest influences on brain organization.

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Exposure to Excess Testosterone

Female children will act like tomboys, receiving extra testosterone during prenatal growth is likely to develop more aggressive behavior patterns than most girls

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Not to Overestimate Influence of Prenatal Hormones

As these children may be treated more like boys because they frequently look masculine

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Gender Role

Refers to set of expected behaviors for males and females. Social role assigned to women and men differ widely across cultures

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Gender Role Example

When teased by your sister, you don't cry cause boys are taught not to cry

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Agricultural Societies Gender Roles

Children typically socialize into more distinct gender roles than do children in nomadic societies due to cultural influences

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Gender Identity

The sense of being male or female

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Gender Typing

The acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role is called gender typing

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Gender Typing Example

Children's tendency to classify toys and songs as either masculine or feminine

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Gender Schema

Children tend to organize their worlds into male and female categories. Gender typing is a product of these

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Gender Schema Example

The belief that boys are more independent than girls

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Experience and Brain Development

A stimulating environment is most likely to facilitate the development of a child's neural connections. Research shows that repeated learning experiences seem to strengthen neural connections at the location that processes the experiences

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Experience and Brain Development Example

Compared with environmentally impoverished rats, those rats housed in enriched environments experienced a dramatic increase in the number of their experiecnes

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Unused Neural Connections

In the brain are reduced through a process of pruning. Lacking any exposure to language before adolescence, a person will never master any language due to pruning of unemployed neural connections

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Unused Neural Connections

For children from impoverished environments stimulating educational experiences during early childhood are most likely to prevent the degeneration of activated connection between neurons

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Adolescence

A phase of development that extends from the beginning of sexual maturity to independent adulthood

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Puberty

The period of rapid physical development and the onset of reproductive capability

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Primary Sex Characteristics

The body structures that enable production. Menarche refers to the first menstrual period. A male's first ejaculation usually occurs as a nocturnal emission.

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Primary Sex Characteristics Example

A woman's ovaries

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Secondary Sex Characterisitics

Non-reproductive sexual characterstics

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Secondary Sex Characteristics Example

Deepened male voice and male facial hair

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Adolescent Physical Development

Boys who mature at an early age tend to be more popular and self-assured

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Adolescent Physical Development Example

The most popular student in a fifth-grade class would be the tallest boy in the class. At age 15 Rock was 6 ft 4 and 215 lbs

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Adolescent Brain Development

Maturation of the frontal lobe lags behind maturation of the limbic system. The improved judgement and impulse control that occurs because of the front lobes growing as well.

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The Speed of Neurotransmission

In the frontal lobe increases during adolescence because of the growth of myelin

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Adolescent Brain Development Example

The ability to think logically about hypothetical situations is indicative of the formal operational stage

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Kohlberg

emphasized that children's moral judgments build on their cognitive development. He emphasized that human behavior less selfish as we mature

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Developing Morality Example

Children pass the ball rather then shoot to make other players happy, however adolescence pass rather than shoot to play the game the way it is

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Pre-Conventional Stage

Morality based on the avoidance of punishment and the attainment of concrete rewards. Based on self-interest

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Pre-Conventional Stage Example

Thinking it's wrong to drive over the speed limit simply because you might be punished for doing so

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Conventional Stage

Morality is based on a desire to uphold the laws of society

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Conventional Stage Example

Student doesn't cheat as its against classroom rules

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Post-Conventional Stage

Involves affirmation of self-defined ethical principles. Requires formal operational thought. Found in cultures that values individualism.

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Post-Conventional Stage Example

Despite legal costs and social disapproval, you refuse to pay taxes as it will support the government for military weapons

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Haidt's Social Intuitionist Theory

Emphasizes that immediate gutlevel feelings often precede and influence our moral reasoning.

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Haidt's Social Intuitionist Theory

Many people would find it morally wrong repulsive to kill someone by thrusting a knife into his or her body than by shooting him or her with a gun from a distance

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Character Education Programs

Teach children to experience empathy

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Corrupt behavior of many people who served as Nazi concentration camp guards illustrates

That immorality often results from social influence

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Learning to delay gratification

Promotes moral action

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Moral Action Feeds

Moral Attitudes

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Erick Erikson

examined psycho-social development. Believed that the special task of the adolescent is to achieve a sense of identity

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Committing Oneself

To meaningful society is indicative of a sense of identity. As individuals progress through their teen years into early adulthood, their self-concepts typically become more positive.

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The capacity to form close

loving relationships in young adulthood depends on achieving a sense of identity

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Teens who suffer role confusion

Have not yet solidified a sense of identity

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Forming an identity example

Apathy about future occupational goals and being fired repeatedly is indicative of role confusion.

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Adolescents and their parents usually agree on

religious views, political views, career, and college choices

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Research on teen social relationships

indicates that most adolescents like their parents

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Research on high school girls indicates

most affectionate relationships with their mothers have the most affectionate relationships with their girlfriends

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Adolescents influence by their parents and peers

parents career aspirations, and peers clothing preference

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Rite of Passage

An elaborate ceremony used to celebrate a person's emergence into adulthood

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Emerging Adulthood

A developmental stage between adolescent dependence and responsible adulthood

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Adolescence in contemporary industrialized societies

begins earlier in life and ends later in life compared with previous centuries

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Menarche and especially with overweight and father absent homes

occurs earlier in life

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Physical Abilities

Such as muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output reach their peak during early adulthood

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The ratio of males to females

begins during declining during adulthood

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Research on older adults

Has shown that they become increasingly prone to car accidents

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Menopause

Refers to the cessation of menstruation associated with a reduction in estrogen. Women no longer able to be pregnant

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Menopause Example

An evolutionary explanation on this, is that older women stop having kids so they can better support their grandchildren. African infants higher chance of survival with a grandmother without own children

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Decline in Sperm Count

As men progress through middle adulthood they experience this and a decline in testosterone level

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Evolutionary Biologists Suggest

That the symptoms of physiological degeneration that accompany old age in humans are a genetically predisposed outcome

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Evolutionary Biologist Example

Aging cells die without being replaced due to a shortening of telomeres

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Death Deferral Phenomenon

The increase in death rates among older people when they reach a life milestone such as a birthday

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Research on people aged 65 and over

Has shown that most older people experience a noticeable loss of visual sensitivity

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As people progress into old age

Their disease fighting immune systems become more effective in resisting upper respiratory flu than in resisting pneumonia

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20 year old versus 70 year old video games

Outperform the opposing group because of age-related differences in information-processing speed

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Aerobic Exercise Programs

During late adulthood stimulate improvement in memory

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As people progress through late adulthood

They typically experience a slight decrease in brain weight

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Physical Exercise

Helps maintain the telomeres protecting the ends of chromosomes

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Dementia

The deterioration of memory and thinking caused by aliments such as Alzheimer's disease or a series of small strokes

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Alzheimer's disease Part One

An irreversible brain disorder marked by a deterioration of one's normal reasoning and memory skills. Involves deterioration of neurons that produce acetylcholine.

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Alzheimer's disease Part Two

An early sign of Alzheimer's disease would be difficulty in naming familiar objects or people.

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Alzheimer's disease Example

Researchers have detected unusually diffuse brain activity while people suffering from Alzheimer's disease are trying to memorize words

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As adults grow older

They are most likely to show a decline in their ability to remember nonsense syllables

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Old people recall one or two important events over the last half century

Older adults tend to name events that occurred when they were between 10 and 30 years of age

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When adults from different ages are tested for words that were recently learned

The older adults demonstrated a decline in recall not recognition

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Cross-Sectional Study

Different age groups are tested at the same time.

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Cross-Sectional Study Example

This research indicated that during adulthood and middle adulthood, aging is associated with declining levels of intelligence

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Longitudinal Study

A research method where the same people are retested over a period of years. The idea that adult intelligence declines with age has been challenged most effectively by this study.

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Longitudinal Study Example

This research indicates that early and middle adulthood, aging is associated with stable levels of intelligence

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Crystallized Intelligence

A person's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills. Older peoples capacity to learn and remember material as much as their capacity to learn and remember meaningless material

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Crystallized Intelligence Example

Best work of novelists originates in middle adulthood when this is highest. Older adults outperform younger adults in their responses to New York Times crossword puzzles

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Fluid Intelligence

A person's ability to reason speedily and abstractly. Formal operational thought is most similar to this.

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Fluid Intelligence Example

Best work of scientists is produced in early adulthood when fluid intelligence is highest. 55 year old test scores on abstract reasoning would be less then if they did it when they were 25

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Terminal Decline Phenomenon

A decrease in mental ability that accompanies the approach of death

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Level of emotional instability

Is similar among adults between the ages of 30-55

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Adults are less likely to divorce

In their early forties than in their early twenties

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Adults are less likely to commit suicide

In their early forties than in their early seventies

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Identical Twins with similar values and preferences

Are not very strongly attracted to one another's fiancees, suggesting that romantic attraction is is influenced by chance encounters

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Social Clock

The culturally preferred time to leave home, marry, have children, and retire. Those who criticize of adult developmental stages will most likely emphasize this on adult development

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Erick Erickson's two basic aspects of life that dominate adulthood

Intimacy and Generativity (Feeling socially useful)

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Research on premarital cohabitation

Strongly suggests that marriage will have a higher-than-average probability of ending in divorce

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The best predictor of a couple's marital satisfaction

Is the ratio of positive of negative interactions with each other

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When children grow up and leave home

Mother most frequently report feeling happy

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There is little relationship between

Age of an adult and their level of life satisfaction

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Research on people's feelings of satisfaction with their lives indicates

Young and older adults report being slightly happier than middle-aged adults

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As adults advance in age

Their positive and negative moods become less extreme and more enduring

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The biopsychosocial approach

understands aging in terms of appropriate nutrition, family support, and an optimistic outlook

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In Erickson's Theory

The sense of integrity achieved in late adulthood refers to the feeling that one's life has been meaningful

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Grief of Death

This is especially severe of a loved one when death becomes their time on the social clock

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Aftermath of a death of a loved one

Those who express the strongest grief immediately do not purge their grief more quickly

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The Issue of Continuity and Stages

Researchers who emphasize learning and experience tend to view development as a continuous process, while those who view it as maturation claim development is stages

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Stage Theories of Adult Development

Are more likely to be criticized for exaggerating the predictability of development.

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The Issue of Stability

Questions about the extent to which maladaptive habits learned in childhood can be overcome in adulthood are directly relevant to this and change

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Personality Traits Comparison with Adults and Children

Stability is greater among adults then children

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