Chapter 7 definitions
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| Cognitive Psychology | the branch of psychology that focuses on mental processes such as thinking, problem solving, decision making, and use of language
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| Thinking | the process of mentally representing and manipulating information
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| Mental Image | a mental picture or representation of an object or event- help us perform cognitive tasks- remembering directions, creative solutions to puzzling problems
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| Concepts | mental categories for classifying events, objects, and ideas on the basis of their common features or properties
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| Logical Concepts | concepts with clearly defined rules for membership
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| Natural Concepts | concepts with poorly defined or fuzzy rules for membership
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| Problem Solving | a form of thinking focused on finding a solution to a particular problem
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| Algorithm | a step by step set of rules that will always lead to a correct solution to a problem
o Drawback- finding one that precisely fits the particular problem
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| Heuristic | a rule of thumb for solving problems or making judgements or decisions
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| Mental Set | then tendency to rely on strategies that worked in similar situations in the past but that may not be appropriate to the present situation
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| Functional Fixedness | the tendency to perceive objects as limited to the customary functions they serve (inability to see how familiar objects can be used in new ways)
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| Decision Making | a form of problem solving in which we must select a course of action from among the available alternatives
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| Cognitive Biases | biased ways of thinking that hamper a person’s ability to make rational or sound choices
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| Confirmation Bias | the tendency to maintain allegiance to an initial hypothesis despite strong evidence to the contrary
o Place greater weight on information that confirms our prior beliefs than disputes it
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| Representativeness Heuristic | a rule of thumb for making a judgement that assumes a given sample is representative of the larger population from which it is drawn
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| Availability Heuristic | the tendency to judge events as more likely to occur when information pertaining to them comes readily to mind
o A particular brand because you recall it from TV
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| Creativity | originality of thought associated with the development of new, workable products or solutions to problems
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| Divergent Thinking | the ability to conceive of new ways of viewing situations and new uses for familiar objects
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| Convergent Thinking | the attempt to narrow down a range of alternatives to converge on the one correct answer to a problem
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| Analogy | a comparison between two things based on their similar features or properties (heart to a pump)
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| Conceptual Combination | combinations of two or more concepts into one concept, resulting in the creation of a novel idea or application (cell phone, home page)
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| Conceptual Expansion | expanding familiar concepts by applying them to new uses (chefs variation of a traditional dish)
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| Language | a system of communication composed of symbols (words, hand signs and so on) that are arranged according to a set of rules (grammar) to form meaningful expressions
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| Grammar | the set of rules governing how symbols in a given language are used to form meaningful expressions
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| Phonemes | the basic unit of sound in a language
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| Morphemes | the smallest units of meaning in a language
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| Syntax | the rules of grammar that determine how words are ordered within sentences or phrases to form meaningful expressions
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| Semantics | the set of rules governing the meaning of words
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| Language Acquisition Device | Chomsky’s concept of an innate, prewired mechanism in the brain that allows children to acquire language naturally
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| Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (Whorfian Hypothesis) | the proposition that the language we use determines how we think and how we perceive the world (does not have merit anymore)
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| Intelligence | The capacity to think and reason clearly and to act purposefully and effectively in adapting to the environment and pursuing one’s goals
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| Alfred Binet | created an intelligence test where children had to do memory tasks and other short tasks the kinds that children might encounter and a scale to at what age what task should be able to be completed
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| Mental Age | a representation of a person’s intelligence based on the age of people who are capable of performing at the same level of ability
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| Intelligence Quotient (IQ) | a measure of intelligence based on performance on tests of mental abilities, expressed as a ration between one’s mental age and chronological age or derived from the deviation of one’s scores from the norms for those of one’s age group
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| Wechsler Scale | uses deviation IQ, a score based on the deviation (difference) of a person’s test score from the norms for the people’s age group, rather than on the ratio of mental age to chronological age
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| Norms | the standards used to compare an individual’s performance on a test with the performance of others
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| Standardization | the process of establishing norms for a test by administering the test to large numbers of people who constitute a standardization sample
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| Standardization Sample | sample must be representative of the population for whom the test is intended
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| Reliability | the stability of test scores over time
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| Test Retest Method | the subject takes the same test again after a short interval (familiarity w/questions could effect this)
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| Alternate-Forms Method | subjects are given a parallel form of the test
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| Validity | the degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure
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| Predictive Validity | the degree to which test scores accurately predict future behavior or performance
• IQ can also predict long term health and longevity and job performance
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| Culture Fair Tests | tests designed to eliminate cultural biases
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| Dyslexia | a learning disorder characterized by impaired ability to read
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| Intellectual Disability | a generalized deficit or impairment in intellectual or social skills (IQ 70 & below)
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| Mainstreaming | the practice of placing children with special needs in a regular classroom environment
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| Gifted | IQ of 130 or higher
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| Primary Mental Abilities | seven basic mental abilities that Thurstone believe constituted intelligence:
o Verbal comprehension, numerical ability, memory, inductive reasoning, perceptual speed, verbal fluency, and spatial relations
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| Primary Mental Abilities Test | measure the seven primary abilities they believe to constitute intelligence
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| Multiple Intelligences | Gardner’s team for the distinct type of intelligence that characterize different forms of intelligent behavior
o Eight intelligences
o Fails to account how multiple intelligences interact with each other
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| Linguistic | ability to understand and use words
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| Logical-mathematical | ability to perform mathematical, computational, or logical operations
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| Musical | ability to analyze, compose, or perform music
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| Spatial | ability to perceive spatial relationships and arrange objects in space
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| Bodily-Kinesthetic | ability to control bodily movements and manipulate objects effectively
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| Interpersonal | ability to relate effectively to others and to understand others moods and motives
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| Intrapersonal | ability to understand one’s own feelings and behavior (self-perception)
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| Naturalist | ability to recognize objects and patterns in nature, such as flora and fauna
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| Triarchic Theory of Intelligence | Sternberg’s theory of intelligence that posits three aspects of intelligence: analytic, creative and practical
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| Analytic Intelligence | is the kind of intelligence measured by traditional intelligence tests (comes into play when you analyze familiar problems, break them down and develop strategies to solve them)
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| Creative Intelligence | allows us to invent new ways of solving unfamiliar problems
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| Practical Intelligence | is the ability to apply what we know to everyday life (common sense)
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| Heritability | the degree to which heredity accounts for variations on a given trait within a population
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| Backward-working heuristic | we start with a possible solution then work backward to see if the data support the solution
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| Using means-end heuristic | we evaluate our current situation and compare it with the end results we want to achieve
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| Creating Sub Goals | we break a larger problem down in into smaller more manageable problems
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