Sensation & Percpetion Part 2
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| Feature Detectors | Nerve cells in the brain's visual cortex that fire in response to specific angles, lines, and angles. These are located in the occipital lobe, pass information to other cortical areas where complex patterns are processed by supercell clusters
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| Supercell Clusters | Teams of cells that fire in response to complex patterns, such as the human face. Two separate brain regions process information about faces and objects
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| Parallel Processing | The human ability to speedily recognize familiar objects. Example: Perceiving the colour, motion, and form of a bird in flight
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| Blindsight | The ability of people who are cortically blind due to lesions in their visual cortex to respond to visual stimuli they do not consciously see.
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| Blindsight Example | Certain stroke victims report seeing nothing when shown a series of sticks, yet they are able to correctly report whether the sticks are vertical or horizontal
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| Young-Helmholtz (Trichromatic) Theory | The theory that the retina contains three different colour receptors- one most sensitive to red, one to green, and one to blue - which when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any colour
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| Opponent Process Theory Part One | The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable colour vision. Some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.
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| Opponent Process Theory Part Two | Opponent process cells have been located in the thalamus
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| Frequency | The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time
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| Pitch | A tone's experienced highness or lowness. The pitch of a sound is determined by the frequency of a sound wave.
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| Amplitude | The size or height of the sound wave. The bigger the wave, the louder the sound. Example: Brightness is to light as loudness is to sound
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| Sequence of Structures | This is what sound waves pass through on the way to the auditory nerve: Eardrum->Hammer->Anvil->Stirrup-> Cochlea
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| Eardrum | Transmits sound from the air to the bones of the middle ear
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| Middle Ear | The portion of the ear internal to the eardrum; it contains three tiny bones that transfer the vibrations of the eardrum into waves in the fluid and membranes of the inner ear.
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| Cochlea | The coiled fluid-filled tube in which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
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| Basilar Membrane | Located in the cochlea, the mechanical vibrations triggered by sound waves are transduced into neural impulses by the hair cells that line the surface of this
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| Place Theory | The theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated. Best explains how we perceive high pitched sounds.
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| Place Theory Example | High-frequency sounds trigger large vibrations near the beginning of the basilar membrane. Current research suggests that both theories correctly explain different aspects of how we hear pitch
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| Frequency Theory | The theory that the rate at which nerve impulses travel up the auditory nerve matches the frequency (pitch) of the tone being heard. Best explains how we perceive low-pitched sounds
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| Volley Principle | Auditory system nervous respond to sound by firing action potentials out of phase with one another so that when combined a greater frequency of sound (pitch) can be encoded and sent to the brain to be analyzed
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| Time Lag | This between left and right auditory stimulation is important for accurately locating sounds. It is difficult to locate sounds that are directly overhead because it reaches both ears simultaneously.
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| Time Lag Example | People who have hearing loss in one ear have difficulty locating sounds because sound waves strike one ear sooner and more intensely that the other. Cocking your head helps detecting sound
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| Conduction Hearing Loss | Sound is not conducted efficiently through the outer ear canal to the eardrum and the ossicles of the middle ear. It usually involves a reduction in sound level or the ability to hear faint sounds
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| Conduction Hearing Loss Example | Misuse of Q-tips in cleaning your ears can rupture the eardrum or damage the hammer, avil, and stirrup leading to conduction hearing loss
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| Sensorineural Hearing Loss | Occurs when there is damage to the cochlea or to the nerve pathways (basilar membrane) from the inner ear to the brain. It reduces the ability to hear faint noises and even speech is loud enough to hear it may sound muffled
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| Sensorineural Hearing Loss Example | A cochlear implant would be most helpful to those who suffer from sensorineural hearing loss. A cochlear implant converts sounds into electrical signals.
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| McGurk Effect Part One | A perceptual phenomenon that demonstrates the interaction between hearing and vision in speech perception. The illusion occurs when the auditory component of one sound is paired with the visual component of another sound, leading to the perception
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| McGurk Effect Part Two | of a third sound. This best illustrates sensory interaction.
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| McGurk Effect Example | If we see a speaker mouthing day, while actually hearing someone else saying may, we may perceive a third syllable bay that blends both inputs
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| Skin Receptors | Researchers have identified these for the skin sensation of pleasure. The simultaneous stimulation of adjacent cold and warm spots on the skin produces the sensation of hot
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| Rubber Hand Illusion Part One | Subjects with normal brain function were positioned with their left hand hidden out of sight. They saw a lifelike rubber left hand in front of them. The experimenters stroked both the subjects hidden left hand and the visible rubber and with a paintbrrush
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| Rubber Hand Illusion Part Two | The experiment showed that if the two hands were stroked synchronously and in the same direction, the subjects began to experience the rubber hand as their own. When asked to use their right hand to point to their left hand, most of the time
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| Rubber Hand Illusion Part Three | If the real and rubber hands were stroked in different directions or at a different times, the subjects did not experience the rubber hand as their own. Impact of Top-Down Processing on the sense of touch is show through this
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| Kinesthesis | Refers to the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts. Receptor cells for kinesthesis are located in the joints, tendons, bones, and ear.
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| Kinesthesis Example | With your eyes closed you can accurately touch your mouth, nose, and chin, with your index finger
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| Vestibular Sense | The ability to detect whether your body is a horizontal or vertical position. The semicircular canals are most directly relevant to the vestibular sense
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| Vestibular Sense Example | The semicircular canals play the biggest role in our feeling dizzy and unbalanced after a roller coaster ride
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| Nocieptors | Sensory receptors that detect hurtful temperatures, pressure, or chemicals. In response to a harmful stimulus, they transmit pain-triggering signals to your central nervous system leading to the sensation of pain
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| Large Fiber Activity | This in the spinal cord can prevent pain signals from reaching the brain
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| A back massage | This would reduce pain by activating nerve fibers in your spinal cord
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| Gate-Control Theory Part One | Pain is a function of the balance between the information travelling into the spinal cord through large never fibers and information travelling into the spinal cord through small fibers
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| Gate-Control Theory Part Two | Large nerve fibers carry non-nociceptive information and small nerve fibers carry no nociceptive information. If the relative amount of activity is greater in large nerve fibers there should be little or no pain.
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| Gate-Control Theory Part Three | If there is more activity in small nerve fibers, then there will be pain
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| Psychological Factors | Such as distraction, can diminish pain sensations. Example: Distracting yourself by thinking about your favorite food when getting a needle can help control pain
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| Endorphines | The brain releases these to reduce pain. People who carry a gene that boosts the availability of endorphins are less bothered by pain. Example: When given a placebo that is said to relieve pain, we are likely to be soothed by the brain's release of these
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| Top Down Processing | The experience of pain involves this, pain may be intensified when we perceive that others are experiencing pain. Example: Pain perception is affected by both biological and social cultural influences
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| Phantom Limb Sensations Part One | The brain misinterprets the spontaneous central nervous system activity that occurs in the absence of normal sensory input
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| Phantom Limb Sensations Part Two | We feel, see, hear, taste, and smell with our brain which can sense even without functioning senses. Example: After losing a hand in an accident, continuing to experience pain in the non-existent hand
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| Tinnitus | The hearing of a sound when no external sound is present. This is a phantom auditory sensation
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| Sense of Taste | This was originally thought to involve bitter, sweet, sour, and salty
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| Umami | This is a basic taste that attracts us to protein rich foods
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| Sensory Interaction | Taste involves this; smell, texture, and temperature contribute to the sensation and flavor of food
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| Young Children | They have more taste receptors so their sensitivity to taste is greater
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| Olfaction Part One | The sense of smell. Olfactory receptor cells are essential for our sense of smell. Both taste and smell are chemical senses. The area of the brain that receives information from the nose is directly connected with the
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| Olfaction Part Two | limbic system which explains why smells are often involved in vivid meomries
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| Gestalt | An organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized that the whole may exceed the sum of its parts.
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| Figure Ground | Perceiving images by organizing stimuli into an object seen against its surroundings. Example: A floating sea vessel is to the ocean water as figure is to ground
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| Proximity | The perceptual tendency to group together stimuli are near each other
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| Closure | Refers to the mind's tendency to see complete figures or forms even if a picture is incomplete, partially hidden by other objects, or if part of the information needed to make a complete picture in our minds is missing
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| Closure Example | Your tendency to mentally fill in the last word when people are singing "HAPPY BIRTHDAY TO ..."
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| Similarity | Perception lends itself to seeing stimuli that physically resemble each other as part of the same object, and stimuli that are different as part of a different object.
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| Similarity Example | Grouping two different colored birds in your yard
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| Depth Perception Part One | The organization of two dimensional retinal images into three dimensional perceptions. Experiments with the visual cliff suggest that ability to perceive depth is partly innate
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| Depth Perception Part Two | Crawling experience is important for the development of depth perception in infancy
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| Binocular Cue | Depth in which both eyes are needed to percieve
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| Binocular Cue Example | Retinal Disparity - The way your left eye and your right eye view slightly different images. The two images are blended into one view when both eyes are open leading to depth perception
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| Monocular Cue | Depth cues processed only by one eye
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| Monocular Cue Example | Are helpful in perceiving the distance of objects far away from you
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| Relative Height | Objects that are higher in the field of vision are more distant
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| Relative Height Example | Distant trees are located closer to the top of the artists' canvas than are nearby flowers
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| Linear Perspective | The convergence of parallel lines provides distance cue
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| Interposition | Closer object obstruct our view of distant objects
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| Relative Size | When objects are equal size, the closer one will take up more of your visual field. (cast a larger retinal image)
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| Relative Motion | Close objects in direction of movement glide rapidly past but objects in the distance appear to move slowly. As we move, objects that are fixed in place may appear to move
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| Light and Shadow | Dimmer objects are interpreted as farther away
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| Compute Motion | We do this based on the assumption that shrinking objects are retreating.
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| Increasing Size of the Retinal Image | The steadily of this of an approaching object is important for perceiving the object's motion
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| Stroboscopic Movement | The quick succession of briefly flashed images in a motion picture. Example: Bugs Bunny hopping across a screen
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| Phi Phenomenon | When two adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession, we perceive a single light moving back and forth between them. Example: Sequentially flashing Christmas tree lights appear to generate pulsating waves of motion
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| Shape Constancy | Refers to the phenomenon in which the precept of the shape of a given object remains despite changes in the shape of the object's retinal image.
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| Shape Constancy Example | As a door opens, it casts an increasingly trapezoidal shape on our retinas; however, we still perceive it as rectangular
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| Size Constancy | Within a certain range, people's perception of one particular objects' size will not change, regardless of changes in distance or the size change on the retina. The perceived size of an object is most strongly influenced by the object's perceived distance
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| Size Constancy Example | As the retinal image of a horse galloping toward you becomes larger, it is unlikely that the horse will appear to grow larger
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| Moon Illusion | An optical illusion which causes the moon to appear larger near the horizon than it does higher up in the sky. The moon illusion is best explained in terms of the relationship between perceived distance and perceived size
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| Ames Illusion | Two people standing in a room appear to be of dramatically different sizes, even though they are the same size. This illusion is best explained in terms of the mispercption of distance
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| Lightness Constancy | Refers to the fact that objects are perceived to have consistent lightness even if the amount of light they reflect changes
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| Relative Luminance | The amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings. Example: A horse looking just as black in the brilliant sunlight as it does in the dim light of a stable
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| Colour Constancy | Refers to the fact that objects are perceived to be the same color even if the light they reflect changes. Color constancy best demonstrates that an object's perceived color is influenced by its surrounding objects
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| Colour Constancy Example | Under the dim lights of a movie theater, you still perceive your friend's shirt as red
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| Immanuel Kent | This philosopher emphasized that perception depends on innate ways of organizing sensory experience
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| John Locke | This philosopher believed that people learn to perceive the world through experience
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| Perceptual Development | A critical period exists for normal this. Humans born blind do not have the cortical regions needed to interpret visual stimuli. Sensory restriction does not appear to damage if it occurs later in life
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| Perceptual Development Example | When visually deprived infant monkeys are first allowed to see, they could not visually distinguish circle from squares.
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| Perceptual Adaptation | Refers to the perceptual adjustment to an artificially displaced visual field. It emphasizes the impact of experience on perception
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| Perceptual Adaption Example | Softball player wears glasses that shift her view 20 degrees up, everything is higher then it is and with practice she can hit the ball. When she hits with glasses off she will believe it is lower.
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| Perceptual Set | A mental predisposition that influences what we perceive. Once we have formed a wrong idea about reality, we have more difficulty seeing the truth.
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| Perceptual Set Example | After watching a scary movie, you perceive the noise of the wind rattling your windows as the sound of a burglar.
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| Context Effects | The context that surrounds an event or object affects how it is perceived
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| Psychokensis | Refers to intense mental concentration that can influence mechanically generated outcomes
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| Precognition | Refers to the perception and prediction of future events
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| Telepathy | Refers to the extrasensory transmission of thought from one mind to another
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| Clairvoyance | Refers to the extrasensory perception of events that occur at places remote to the perceiver
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| Parapsychology | Refers to the study of phenomena such as ESP, psychokinesis, clairvoyance, and telepathy
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| ESP | Refers to perception that occurs apart from sensory input
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| Skepticism | Psychologists are skeptical about the existence of ESP because many apparent demonstrations of ESP have been shown to be staged illusions and fail at replicaton
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| Skepticism Example | Psychics who have worked with police departments have reported visions that are no more accurate than guesses
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