hapters 4-7
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| Consciousness | awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings we experience at a given moment
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| Stage 1 Sleep | the state of transition between wakefulness and sleep, characterized by relatively rapid low
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| Stage 2 Sleep | A sleep deeper that of stage 1, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of “sleep spindles”
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| Stage 3 Sleep | A sleep characterized by slow brain waves, with greater peaks and valleys in the wave pattern than in stage 2
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| Stage 4 Sleep | the deepest stage of sleep, during which we are least responsive to outside stimulus
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| Rapid Eye Movement | sleep occupying 20% of an adult’s sleeping time, characterized by increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate; erections; eye movements; and the experience of dreaming
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| Day Dreams | Fantasies that people construct while awake. A part of the waking consciousness
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| Unconscious wish fulfillment theory | Sigmund Freud’s theory that dreams represent unconscious wishes that the dreamers desire to see fulfilled. Have a latent and manifest content.
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| Latent content | the disguised meanings of dreams, hidden by more obvious subjects
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| Manifest content | the apparent story line of the dream
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| Dream for survival theory | dreams permit information that is critical for our daily survival to be reconsidered and reprocessed during sleep
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| Activation | synthesis theory
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| Insomnia | trouble sleeping
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| Sleep apnea | stop breathing during sleep (SIDS)
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| Night Terrors | usually occurs in stage 4 sleep during non
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| Narcolepsy | uncontrollable sleeping, occurs for short periods of time while the person is awake. Someone that just falls asleep during activities, at random. Causes unknown but runs in families
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| Hypnosis | trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others. Susceptibility to hypnosis varies greatly. Hypnosis is used to help control pain, reduce smoking, treating psychological disorders, assisting in law enforcement, and improving ath
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| Meditation | learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness, typically consists of the repetition of a mantra
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| Psychoactive drugs | influence a person’s emotions, perceptions, and behavior, addictive drugs. Produce a biological or psychological dependence in the user
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| Stimulants | caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines (methamphetamines), and cocaine effect the central nervous system by causing a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension
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| Depressants | impedes the nervous system by causing neurons to fire more slowly
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| Barbiturates | form of depressants, prescribe by physicians to induce sleep or reduce stress (rohypnol)
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| Narcotics | prescribe to increase relaxation relieve pain and reduce anxiety (morphine, oxycodone, and heroin),
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| Methadone | a synthetic chemical that satisfies a heroin user’s physiological cravings for the drug without providing the “high” that accompanies heroin. When placed on methadone user’s function more normally, only drawback being that methadone replaces heroin as phy
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| Psychedelics | produce hallucinations or changes in the perceptual process, marijuana (tetrahydrocannabinol or THC), MDMA (ecstasy), or lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD or Acid)
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| Hallucinogen | a drug capable of producing hallucinations or changes in the perceptual process
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| Learning | a relatively permanent change in behavior, brought about by experience
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| Classical conditioning | a type of learning which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response, can lead to the development of phobia’s and PTSD
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| Conditioned | learned
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| Unconditioned | not learned
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| Neutral Stimulus | a stimulus that before conditioning does not naturally bring about the response of interest
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| Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) | a stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without being learned
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| Unconditioned Response (UCR) | A response that is natural and doesn’t need to be learned
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| Conditioned Stimulus (CS) | A neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response that was caused only by the unconditioned stimulus
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| Conditioned Response (CR) | a response that after conditioning follows a previously neutral stimulus
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| Phobias | extreme fear of things we shouldn’t necessarily be afraid of
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| Habituation | the decrease in response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus
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| Acquisition | conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus presented together
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| Extinction | conditioned stimulus presented by itself, occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears. To produce extinction one needs to end association between conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus
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| Spontaneous recovery | reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning, the behavior tries to return, must be dealt with in conditioning or conditioning will fail
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| Stimulus generalization | occurs when a conditioned response follows a stimulus, the greater the similarity between two stimuli the greater the likelihood of stimulus generalization. The conditioned response to a new stimulus is usually not as intense as the original conditioned r
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| Stimulus discrimination | occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not, ability to differentiate between stimuli
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| Operant Conditioning | Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on it favorable or unfavorable consequences
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| Reinforcement | The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated
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| Reinforcer | Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again
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| Positive Reinforcer | A stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in preceding response
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| Negative Reinforcer | An unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future
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| Punishment | A stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur again
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| Schedules of Reinforcement | Different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior
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| Continuous Reinforcement Schedule | Reinforcing of behavior every time it occurs
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| Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule | Reinforcing of a behavior some but not all of the time
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| Fixed-Ratio Schedule | reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses (a fixed number)
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| Variable-Ratio Schedule | occurs after a varying number of responses rather than a fixed number, leads to a high rate of response and resistance to extinction
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| Fixed-Interval Schedule | provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed; overall rates of response are relatively low
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| Variable-Interval Schedule | time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed
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| Shaping | The process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
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| Behavior Modification | A formalized technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones
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| Cognitive Learning Theory | An approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning
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| Latent Learning | Learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it
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| Observational Learning | Learning by observing the behavior of another person, or model
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| Memory | The process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information
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| Encoding | recording information in a form usable to memory
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| Storage | Maintenance of material saved in memory
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| Retrieval | Memory is located and bought to awareness
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| Sensory Memory | initial, momentary storage of information; lasts only an instant ,sensory memory can store almost an exact replica of each stimulus to which it is exposed
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| Short Term Memory | memory that holds information for 15
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| Long Term Memory | stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve; if information doesn’t pass to short term it is lost for good
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| Iconic Memory | reflects information from the visual system, lasts a second
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| Echoic Memory | stores auditory information coming from the ears, last 2
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| Chunk | meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be stored as a unit in short term memory, seven chunks can be held in short term memory, chunks vary in size
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| Rehearsal | repetition of information stored in short
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| Elaborative Rehearsal | information is considered and organized in some fashion, information is more likely to be placed in long term memory
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| Mnemonics | an organizational strategy; organizing information in a way that makes it more likely to be remembered
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| Working Memory | set of temporary memory stores that actively manipulate and rehearse information, another term for short term memory; allows us to keep information in an active state briefly so that we can do something with the information; uses significant amount of cog
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| Central Executive Processor | involved in reasoning and decision making; coordinates three distinct storage
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| Visual Store | specializes in visual and spatial information
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| Verbal Store | holds an d manipulates material relating to speech
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| Episodic Buffer | Contains information that represents episodes or events
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| Serial Position Effect | ability to recall information in a list depends on where in the list the item appeared
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| Primary Effect | items presented earl in the list are remembered better
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| Recency Effect | items presented late in the list are remembered best
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| Declarative Memory | factual information, names, faces, dates, and the like
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| Semantic Memory | memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts
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| Episodic Memory | information about things; memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context
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| Procedural Memory (Nondeclarative Memory) –skills and habits, memory on how to do things |
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| Semantic Networks | Mental representations of clusters of interconnected information
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| Tip of the tongue Phenomenon | The inability to recall information that one realizes one knows, a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long term memory
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| Recall | Memory tasks in which specific information must be retrieved
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| Recognition | Memory task in which individuals are presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives
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| Levels of Processing Theory | The theory of memory that emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed
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| Explicit Memory | Intentional or conscious recollection of information
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| Implicit Memory | Memories of which people are not consciously aware but that can affect subsequent performance and behavior
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| Priming | A phenomenon in which exposure to a word or concept (called a prime) later makes it easier to recall related information, even when there is no conscious memory of the word or concept
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| Flashbulb Memories | Memories related to specific, important, or surprising event that are recalled easily and with vivid imagery
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| Constructive Processes | Processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give events
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| Schemas | Organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled
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| Autobiographical Memories | our recollections of circumstances and episodes from our own lives
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| Decay | The loss of information in memory through its nonuse
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| Interference | The phenomenon by which information in memory disrupts the recall of other information
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| Cue dependent Forgetting | Forgetting that occurs when there is insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory
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| Proactive Interference | Interference in which information learned earlier disrupts the recall of material learned later
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| Retroactive Interference | Interference in which material that is learned later disrupts the recall of information learned earlier
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| Alzheimer’s Disease | A progressive brain disorder that heads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities
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| Amnesia | Memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties
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| Retrograde Amnesia | Amnesia in which memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event, but not for new events
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| Anterograde Amnesia | Amnesia in which memory is lost for events that follow an injury
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| Korsakoff’s Syndrome | A disease that afflicts long term alcoholics, leaving some abilities intact but including hallucinations and a tendency to repeat the same story
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| Cognitive Psychology | The branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher mental processes, including thinking, language, memory, problem solving, knowing, reasoning, and judging
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| Mental Images | Representations in the mind of an object or event
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| Concepts | A mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people
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| Prototype | Typical, highly representative examples of a concept
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| Algorithm | A rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem
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| Heuristic | A thinking strategy that may lead us to a solution to a problem or decision, but, unlike algorithms, may sometimes lead to errors
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| Representativeness Heuristics | rule we apply when we judge people by the degree to which they represent a certain category or group of people (discrimination)
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| Availability Heuristic | Judging the probability of an event on the basis of how easily the event can be recalled from the memory
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| Familiarity Heuristic | familiar items are seen as superior to those that are unfamiliar
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| Preparation | understanding and diagnosing problems, deleting nonessential information
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| Production | generating solutions; means end analysis, dividing the problem into sub goals; insight
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| Judgment | evaluating solutions, which is best; final stage in problem solving, if solution is less concrete or if there is no a single correct solution evaluating solutions becomes more difficult
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| Means end Analysis | Involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists
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| Arrangement Problems | require the problem solver to rearrange or recombine elements in a way that will satisfy a certain criterion
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| Problems of Inducing Structure | person must identify the existing relationship among elements presented then construct a new relationship among them
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| Transformation Problems | consist of an initial state, a goal state, and a method for changing the initial state into the goal state
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| Well defined Problem | both nature of the problem itself and the information needed it are available and clear
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| Ill defined Problem | not only the specific nature of the problem is unclear, but the information required to solve the problem is less obvious
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| Means-end-analysis | involves repeated test for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists, most frequently applied heuristic applied in problem solving
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| Sub-goals | dividing problems into smaller parts
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| Insight | a sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be independent of one another, prior experience and trail and error practice in problem solving must precede insight
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| Functional Fixedness | tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical uses
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| Mental Set | tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist
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| Inaccurate Evaluation of Solution | confirmation bias, problem solvers favor initial hypothesis and ignore contradictory information that supports alternative hypothesis or solutions
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| Creativity | ability to generate original ides or solve problems in novel ways, not related to intelligence
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| Divergent Thinking | ability to generate unusual, yet appropriate, responses to problems or questions
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| Convergent Thinking | Produces responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic; traditional intelligence tests tap convergent thinking skills
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| Cognitive Complexity | Preference for elaborate, intricate, and complex stimuli and better thinking patterns
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| Language | The communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules
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| Grammar | The system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed
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| Phonology | The study of the smallest units of speech, phonemes
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| Phonemes | The smallest unit of speech
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| Syntax | Ways in which words and phrases can be combined to form sentences
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| Semantics | The rules governing the meaning of words and sentences
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| Babble | Meaningless speech
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| Telegraphic Speech | Sentences in which words not critical to the message are left out
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| Overgeneralization | The phenomenon by which children apply language rules even when the application results in error
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| Learning theory Approach | following the principles of reinforcement and conditioning, doesn’t fully explain language acquisition
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| Nativist Approach | humans are born with an innate linguistic capabilities that emerge primarily as function of maturation; all worlds language share a common underlying structure that is prewired, biologically determined and universal
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| Interactionist Approach | a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language
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| Linguistic Relativity Approach | notion that language shapes and in fact may determine the way people in a specific culture perceive and understand the world, language shapes and produces thought; newer version of this theory suggests that speech pattern may influence certain aspects of
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| Bilingual Education | students learn some subjects in native language while simultaneously learning English
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| Immersion Programs | students are immediately plunged into an original cultural identity as well as integration into an adopted culture
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| Intelligence | The capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges
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| g or g factor | The single, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of intelligence
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| Fluid Intelligence | reflects information processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory; ability to reason abstractly; reflects a more general kind of intelligence
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| Crystallized Intelligence | accumulation of information skills, and strategies that people learn through experience; reflects ability to call up information from long term memory; a reflection of the culture in which a person was raised
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| Analytical Intelligence | focuses on abstract nut traditional types of problems measured on IQ tests
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| Creative Intelligence | involves the generation of novel ideas and products
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| Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences | many ways of showing intelligence, eight different forms:
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| Musical | skills in tasks involving music
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| Bodily Kinesthetic | skills in using the whole body or various portions of it in the solution to a problem or in the construction of products or displays
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| Logical, Mathematical | skills in problem solving and scientific thinking
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| Linguistic | Skills involved in the production and use of language
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| Spatial | skills involving spatial configurations
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| Interpersonal | skills in interaction with others, such as sensitivity to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions of others
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| Intrapersonal | knowledge of the internal aspects of oneself, access to one’s own feelings and emotions
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| Naturalists | ability to identify and classify patterns in nature
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| Information Processing Approach | way people store material in memory and use that material to solve intellectual tasks, speed of processing, provides most accurate measure of intelligence; examines the processes involved in producing intelligent behavior
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| Practical Intelligence | related to overall success in living; learned mainly through observation of others behavior; people high in this area are able to learn general norms and principles and apply them appropriately
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| Emotional Intelligence | set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions; basis of empathy for others, self awareness, and social skills
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| Existential Intelligence | involves identifying and thinking about the fundamental questions of human existence
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| Achievement Test | designed to determine a person’s level of knowledge in a specific subject area
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| Intelligence Test | tests devised to quantify a person’s level of intelligence
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| Aptitude Test | designed to predict a person’s ability in a particular area or line of work
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| Reliability | test measure consistently what they are trying to measure
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| Validity | tests accurately measure what they are supposed to measure
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| Norms | standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person’s score on a test to the scores of others, standard tests
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| Adaptive Testing | using computers; adaptive in the sense that the computer individualizes the test to the test
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| Intelligence Quotient | a measure of intelligence that takes into account an individual’s mental and chronological ages
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| Mental Retardation (intellectual disabilities) | disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills
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| Fetal Alcohol Syndrome | caused by mother’s use of alcohol while pregnant
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| Familial Retardation | no apparent biological defect exists but there is a history of retardation in the family
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| Culture Fair IQ Test | one that does not discriminate against the members of any minority group
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| Heritability | measure of the degree to which a characteristic can be attributed to genetic inherited factors
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| Intellectually Gifted | The 2%to4% segment of the population who have IQ scores greater than 130
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