Chapter 4
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| attitude | An attitude is a psychological tendency that’s expressed by evaluating an object with some degree of favor or disfavor
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| Affect | Feelings toward object
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| Cognition | Beliefs about attributes object
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| Behavior | Actions exhibited in relation to object
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| Knowledge | Organize and structure environment
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| Instrumental | Maximize rewards, minimize punishments
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| Ego-defensive | Deal with internal conflicts and defend against anxiety
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| Value-expressive | Express ideals/values important to self-concept
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| Functions of attitudes | Knowledge, Instrumental, Ego-defensive, and Value-expressive
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| Nominal | Names or categories
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| Ordinal | order or rank
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| Interval | Numeric arbitrary zero
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| Ratio | Numeric fixed zero
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| Measuring attitudes | Nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio
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| Thurstone scale 1 | Post WWI work on interests and attitudes during 1920s- both industrial and psychological research interests
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| Thurstone scale 2 | Developed procedure to generate about 20 statements that a respondent would agree or disagree with, sum the items based on their interval scale value (positive or negative items, scored appropriately)
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| Likert scale | numerical scale used to assess people’s attitudes; it includes a set of possible answers with labeled anchors on each extreme
1=strongly disagree
2=disagree
3=uncertain
4=agree
5=strongly agree
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| Semantic differential scale Osgood, Suci, & Tannenbaum | Bipolar adjective pairs
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| How Well Do Our Attitudes Predict Our Behavior? | People’s expressed attitudes do not always accurately predict their varying behaviors
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| Implicit | Implicit biases are pervasive
People differ in implicit bias
People are often unaware of their implicit biases
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| How Well Do Our Attitudes Predict Our Behavior? 2 | When social influences on what we say are minimal
When other influences on behavior are minimal
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| How Well Do Our Attitudes Predict Our Behavior? 3 | When attitudes specific to the behavior are examined
When attitudes are potent
Self-awareness
Forge strong attitudes through experience
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| Strong attitudes | Are more likely to remain unchanged as time passes
Are better able to withstand persuasive attacks or appeals specifically directed at them
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| The two main reasons strong attitudes resist change are | Commitment and Embeddedness
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| Embeddedness | people have connected these attitudes to other features of their self-concept, values, and identity
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| Commitment | people are sure they are correct
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| The following factors influence the likelihood that a person’s attitude will be consistent with his behavior | Knowledge
Personal relevance
Attitude accessibility
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| Theory of planned behavior | Theory stating that the best predictor of behavior is one’s behavioral intention, which is influenced by:
-One’s attitude toward specific behavior
-Subjective norms regarding the behavior
-One’s perceived control over the behavior
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| Three conditions that can affect the magnitude of the relationship between intentions and behavior 1 | The degree to which the measure of intention and behavior correspond in their levels of specificity;
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| Three conditions that can affect the magnitude of the relationship between 2 | The stability of intentions between time of measurement and performance of the behavior
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| Three conditions that can affect the magnitude of the relationship between 3 | The degree to which carrying out the intention is under personal control of the actor.
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| Role | Set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave
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| Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon | Tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
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| Low-ball technique | Tactic for getting people to agree to something. People who agree to an initial request will often still comply when the requester ups the ante
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| Racial behaviors help shape our social consciousness | By doing, not saying racial attitudes were changed
Legislating morality
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| Social Movements | Political and social movements may legislate behavior designed to lead to attitude change on a mass scale
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| Self-Presentation: Impression Management | Assumes that people, especially those who self-monitor their behavior hoping to create good impressions, will adapt their attitude reports to appear consistent with their actions
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| Self-Justification: Cognitive Dissonance | Tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions
To reduce this tension, we adjust our thinking
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| Insufficient justification | Reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one’s behavior when external justification is “insufficient”
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| Dissonance after decisions | Deciding-becomes-believing effect
Can breed overconfidence
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| Self-Perception Theory | When we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them much as would someone observing us, by looking at our behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs
Expressions and attitude
Overjustification and intrinsic motivations
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| selective exposure | Seek media and information that agrees with ones views to avoid dissonance.
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| facial feedback effect | The tendency of facial expressions to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear anger or happiness.
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| Overjustification effect | The result of bribing people to do what they already like doing, this can cause to think their actions are externally caused instead of internally.
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| self-affirmation theory | compensating in one area when another is threatened.
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