| Term | Definition |
| Learning | —the process of acquiring new information |
| Memory | is the ability to store and retrieve
information, or the specific information stored in
the brain. |
| Amnesia | a severe memory impairment |
| Retrograde amnesia | loss of memories formed
before onset of amnesia |
| Who was patient aka Henry Molaison | old memories
were intact, but he could not remember events
that took place or retain any new material after
his surgery, which removed the amygdala, most
of the hippocampus, and cortex from both
temporal lobes. |
| Anterograde amnesia | is the inability to form
memories after onset of a disorder. Patients
with this type of amnesia can learn to read
mirror-reversed text, a verbal task. |
| Memory | deficit was caused by loss of the
medial temporal lobe, including the
hippocampus.Surgical patients with similar surgery but an
intact hippocampus showed no memory
impairment. |
| Declarative memory | facts and information
acquired through learning that can be stated or
described; used to answer “what” questions |
| Nondeclarative (procedural) memory | shown by performance rather than recollection;
used to answer “how” questions |
| Delayed non-matching-to-sample task | a test
of object recognition memory that requires
monkeys to declare what they remember . |
| Patient N.A. saginifaicant | amnesia due to damage to the
dorsomedial thalamus and mammillary
bodies |
| Korsakoff’s syndrome | a degenerative disease
of memory deficiency caused by damage to
mammillary bodies, dorsomedial thalamus, and
frontal cortex, due to lack of thiamine—seen in
chronic alcoholism |
| Semantic memory | generalized declarative
memory |
| Episodic memory | detailed autobiographical
memory |
| Declarative memory | Semantic memory and Episodic memory |
| Skill learning | learning to perform a challenging
task through repetition
• All kinds—sensorimotor, perceptual, and
cognitive—are impaired by damage to the
basal ganglia |
| Priming | a change in stimulus processing due to
prior exposure to the stimulus
• Function of the cortex—different types of
priming are related to reduced activity in
different cortical areas |
| Nondeclarative memory | Skill learning and Priming |
| Associative learning | The association between
two stimuli, or between a stimulus and a response |
| Classical conditioning | a neutral stimulus, repeatedly
paired with a stimulus that elicits a response,
begins to elicit the response of the stimulus
when presented alone. |
| instrumental conditioning aka operant
conditioning | an association is made between
a behavior |
| Sensory buffer | the briefest recollection of
sensory impressions |
| hort-term memories (STMs) | usually last about
30 seconds, or throughout rehearsal. |
| Long-term memories (LTMs | last days, weeks, months, or years |
| Encoding | sensory information to STM |
| Consolidation | information may be
consolidated into long-term storage |
| Retrieval | stored information is retrieved |
| Three processes of the memory system | Encoding. Consolidation, Retrieval |
| memory trace | not deteriorate over time,
but is interfered with by other events that occur
before or after their formation |
| Reconsolidatio | the return of a memory trace
to stable, long-term storage after recall. |
| Three housing conditions | Standard condition (SC)
• Impoverished condition (IC)
• Enriched condition (EC) |
| Animals housed in EC developed | • Heavier, thicker cortex
• Enhanced cholinergic activity
• More dendritic branches and spines on cortical
neurons
• Larger cortical synapses
• More neurons in the hippocampus
• Enhanced recovery from brain damage |
| Nonassociative learning | nvolves only one
stimulus |
| Habituation | decrease in response to a
repeated stimulus; studied in Aplysia
• A squirt of water on its siphon causes it to
retract its gill.
• After repeated squirts, the animal retracts the
gills less. |
| Hebbian synapses | act together to store
memory traces |
| Tetanus | brief, high-frequency burst of
electrical stimul |
| Ectoderm | outer layer; becomes the nervous
system |
| neural tube | The crests of the neural groove join |
| Six stages of brain development | Neurogenesis Cell migration Cell differentiation Synaptogenesis Cell death Synapse rearrangement |
| Neurogenesis | mitosis produces neurons
from non-neuronal cells, forming the
ventricular zone |
| Cell migration | move out of the
ventricular zone toward their destination,
where they express particular genes |
| Synaptogenesis | establishment of synaptic
connections |
| Cell death | selective death of many neurons |
| Synapse rearrangement | loss or
development of synapses, fine-tuning |
| Cell death | an important part of brain
development |
| Adult neurogenesis | the generation of new
neurons in adulthood, primarily in the dentate
gyrus. |
| Genotype | sum of an individual’s intrinsic,
genetic information; constant |
| Phenotype | sum of an individual’s physical
characteristics; changes constantly based on
extrinsic effects on genes
• Identical twins: Differences in neural
phenotypes produce different behaviors. |
| Clones | asexually produced organisms that are
genetically identical |
| Epigenetics | the study of the factors that change
gene expression without changing the gene
sequences.
• Genetically identical male mice raised by
different mothers show different behaviors. |
| Methylation | chemical modification of DNA
without changing the nucleotide sequence;
these genes are then less likely to be
expressed |
| Dementia | drastic failure of cognitive ability,
including memory failure and disorientation |
| Alzheimer’s disease | form of dementia. The
brain exhibits striking cortical atrophy and
reduced metabolism |
| Neurofibrillary tangles | abnormal whorls of
filaments |
| gold-standard" for therapy efficacy | Liking one’s therapist |
| The lobotomy was considered a racially-biased, unethical procedure to treat mental illness and was initially phased out of practice by selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors
Explain your answer if true; correct the statement if false. | False it was phased out by atypical antipsychotics |
| Positive Vs Negative symptoms | Positive symptoms are adding atypical symptoms while negative symptoms are taking away typical behavior |
| Which of the following is/are considered positive symptoms? | Sue feels she is being, Ann hears internal voice, Jack loses much of his money because he manically gambles |
| Provide one reason why men have lower rates of mental health incidence as compared to women. | Men are less likely to report their symptoms |
| Which of the following is/are risk factors for schizophrenia? | Living in New York City
A person's mother acquired a viral infection while pregnant |
| Which of the following is/are treatments for depression? | SSRI, rTMS, ECT |
| Which of the following statements regarding memory is FALSE? | Procedural memories are hippocampus dependent skill-based learnings that recruit the basal ganglia |
| Based on what we discussed in class, explain what neurotransmitter and receptors are involved in long-term potentiation (1 sentence) | In long-term potentiation uses the transmitter glutamate, NMDA and AMPA receptors. |
| . Explain how neurotransmitter and receptors are connected for LTP (3-4 sentences). | The NMDA receptor rest have MG^2+ ions blocks Ca^2 channels-> NMDA receptors active= large glutamate transmitter are release->AMPA receptors depolarizes the membrane-> release Mg2+ from NMDA receptors/Ca^2+ enters-> NMDA receptors respond to glutamate. |
| Monozygotic and dizygotic twins have the same genotypes and phenotypes, unless epigenetic effects such as methylation act on organismal DNA. False | Monozygotic= same genotypes != same neural phenotypes produces behavoiors. DNA affects methylation in the DNA both twins will be affected. dizygotic!= same genotypes so if methylation act on DNA in one twin the other won't get affected. |
| Briefly explain the anatomical direction (i.e. start to finish) for synaptic development. Hint: Where does synapse formation start and where does it finish? | caudal to rostral / postrial to antrior |
| if a researcher wanted to determine which region develops into neural tissue,
ectoderm || mesoderm || endoderm | ectoderm |
| Which of the following is true regarding Alzheimer's disease? | Beta-amyloid plaques have been traditionally considered to be a causal factor |
| Which of the following is/are examples of habituation? (Select all that apply). | Your spouse often cooks with jalapeño peppers and you don't notice the spice/Your new roommate wears a strong chocolate smelling perfume,but by October, don't smell it anymore After living next to the Turnpike for over a decade->not notice horns |
| Remembering Donald Trump and Joe Biden were presidents during the covid pandemic | Sematic |
| Remembering mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell | sematic |
| Knowing how to perform CPR | procedural |
| Knowing your professor's favorite hockey team is the Penguins | sematic |
| Attention (selective attention) | is the process of selecting or focusing on one or more stimuli. |
| Overt attention | occurs when the focus coincides with the sensory orientation. |
| covert attention | the focus is independent of sensory orientation. |
| Cocktail party effect | selective attention filters out stimuli not being attended to |
| Inattentional blindness | is a failure to perceive nonattended visual stimuli. |
| shadowing experiments | subjects must focus on just one of two or more simultaneous stimuli. |
| Dichotic presentation | simultaneous delivery of different stimuli to the left and right ears |
| divided-attention | tasks, subjects are asked to process two or more simultaneous stimuli. |
| attentional spotlight | shifts around the environment, highlighting stimuli for processing. |
| attentional bottleneck | works as a filter to select only the most important stimuli for processing. |
| Perceptual load | the immediate processing demands presented by a stimulus; determines how much of our perceptual resources are used |
| symbolic cuing | task measures reaction time for noticing the appearance of a specific target preceded by a symbolic cue: |
| Voluntary attention (voluntary attention) | directed toward aspects of the environment according to our interests and goals. |
| Reflexive attention (exogenous attention) | the involuntary reorienting of attention toward a sudden or important event. |
| Feature search | a search in which the target pops out right away due to a unique attribute |
| Conjunction search | a search based on two or more features that together distinguish the target |
| binding problem | asks how the brain blends individual attributes into a single object when each attribute is processed in a different brain region. |
| temporal resolution | the ability to track brain changes that occur quickly. |
| spatial resolution | the ability to observe detailed brain structure. |
| auditory N1 effect | strengthened for selectively attended stimuli. |
| P20-50 effect | another positive wave early in the recording. |
| auditory N1 effect | strengthened for selectively attended stimuli. |
| P3 effect | occurs later in the ERP and may reflect higher-order processing. |
| superior colliculus | guides movement of eyes toward objects of attention. |
| pulvinar | involved in visual processing, orienting and shifting attention, and filtering of stimuli. |
| temporoparietal junction (TPJ) | steers attention toward novel or unexpected stimuli. |
| Hemispatial neglect | no attention paid to one side of the body or things presented to that side |
| Balint’s syndrome: | Oculomotor ataxia—difficulty steering gaze
Optic ataxia—inability to accurately reach for objects using visual guidance |
| Simultagnosia | profound restriction of attention to one object at a time |
| Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) | is a degenerative disease that damages the superior colliculi, impairing gaze control. |
| Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) sysmtoms | Trouble with voluntary movement of eyes
Trouble converging eyes on close-up objects
Difficulty with covert attention
Difficulty switching between attentional targets, even without eye movement |
| Communication | the transmission of information between individuals that occurs in many species. |
| language | highly specialized communication based on assembly of arbitrary symbols—to convey a vast range of things, actions, and concepts. |
| Spatial cognition | our ability to navigate and understand spatial relationships between objects |
| dichotic presentation | delivers different sounds to each ear at the same time |
| Tachistoscope tests | used to study visual perception of linguistic stimuli. |
| planum temporale | the upper surface of the temporal lobe—is larger in the left hemisphere, even in infants before development of language. |
| Prosody | the perception of emotional tone aspects of language, yet is a right-hemisphere specialization. |
| Astereognosis | the inability to recognize objects by touch. |
| Prosopagnosia (face blindness) | the inability to recognize faces, including one’s own. |
| Wada Test | confirm involvement of hemispheres in language by temporarily shutting down each hemisphere. |
| Broca’s area | region of the left inferior frontal region involved in speech production |
| nonfluent (or Broca’s) aphasia | difficulty with producing speech, but not with comprehension. |
| hemiplegia | paralysis of one side of the body, usually the right side. |
| Global aphasia | total loss of the ability to understand or produce language |
| connectionist model of aphasia | also known as the Wernicke-Geschwind model—says deficits result from disconnection between brain regions in the language network. |
| conduction aphasia | an impairment in the repetition of words and sentences. |
| motor theory of language | proposes that anterior and posterior left-hemisphere language zones are motor control systems. |
| Phonemes | basic speech sounds |
| Morphemes | simple units of meaning; assembled into words with meaning; semantics |
| Dyslexia | mild to severe difficulty with reading attributed to brain impairment |
| Acquired dyslexia (alexia) | sudden dyslexia after brain damage, usually to the left hemisphere |
| Deep dyslexia | patients read one word as another, related word. |
| Surface dyslexia | patients are restricted to the regular sound rules of letters. |
| Recovery of function | the recovery of behavioral capacity following brain damage from stroke or injury. |
| concussion | closed head brain injury caused by a jarring blow to the head. |
| Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) | dementia that results from too many blows to the head and is characterized by excess tau protein within neurons, which interferes with their function. |
| Lesion momentum | important—patients experience less impairment when lesions develop more gradually. |
| constraint-induced movement therapy | patient uses the affected limb to perform tasks while the unaffected limb is constrained. |
