| Question | Answer |
| What is the definition of Psychology? | The scientific study of behavior and mental processes (cognitive-thought processes, and emotions-feelings) |
| What are the 3 main components of Psychology? | 1)Behavior
2)Cognition
3)Emotion |
| Behavior | *Overt-
outside, public
*Covert-
inside, hidden
~ "Overt" behavior leads to inferences about "covert" mental processes. |
| What is the Main Question in Psychology? | WHY...
->Why do people think, feel, and behave as they do?
-> Why do different people think, feel, and behave differently? |
| Where does the brain originate? | Biological organ
-> electrochemical processes |
| Where does the mind originate? | "Mind"
Psychological experiences resulting from brain processes
**the "mind" interprets the world in terms of what we know and believe. |
| Psychology as a Science:
-> Basic Assumptions | 1)Determinism
2)Discoverability
3)Empiricism |
| Determinism | - Underlying lawful principles |
| Discoverability | - We can "discover" principles |
| Empiricism | - Scientific research |
| Psychology as a Science:
-> Basic Goals #1 | 1)Understand causes of B&MP (the Why question)
-key theme:
Underlying causes of B&MP are complex and not completely understood.
***Our understanding is in terms of "tendencies" rather than "absolute certainties" |
| Psychology as a Science:
-> Basic Goals #2 | 2)Apply understanding to Predict B&MP:
-school admissions
-employment (hiring)
-parole board decisions |
| Psychology as a Science:
-> Basic Goals #3 | 3)Apply understanding to Change B&MP:
-personal improvement
-therapy
-performance improvement
-societal change |
| Biopsychology | Tries to identify links between....
-brain processes
-hormones
-genetics
...and B&MP |
| Charles Whitman | Shooting Rampage due to a brain tumor and use of amphetamines.
> killed: 14
> wounded: 32
@ the University of Texas at Austin
-> Amygdala= aggression |
| Evolution | Biological structures and processes are result of evolution (natural selection).
-Charles Darwin [1809-1882] |
| Evolutionary "Time Lag" | Although we live in the "information age", our brain is the result of the "stone age" |
| Neuron | highly specialized cell that communicates information in electrical and chemical form; a nerve cell |
| Glial cells | support cells that assist neurons by providing structural support, nutrition, and removal of cell wastes; manufactures myelin |
| Sensory Neuron | type of neuron that conveys information to the brain from specialized receptor cells in sense organs and internal organs |
| Motor Neuron | type of neuron that signals muscles to relax or contract |
| Dendrites | multiple short fibers that extend from the neuron's cell body and recieve information from other neurons or from sensory cell receptors |
| Axon | the long, fluid-filled tube that carries a neuron's messages to other body areas |
| Damage to the Brain:
Examples | > Phineas Gage- 1848
railroad worker with spike through his head
- changed his personality
> Travis Bogumill
construction worker with nail in frontal lobe
- changed his musical preferences |
| Damage to the Brain:
Stroke | *sudden interruption of blood flow to an area of the brain
~700,000 per year in the U.S.
1/3 die
1/3 have permanent loss of function
**3rd leading cause of death in the world |
| Symptoms of Stroke | -weak, numb, paralysis on one side
-vision problems
-cognitive problems
-aphasia (difficulty with language)
-> Broca's Area:
frontal lobe, motor functions
-> Wernicke's Area:
understanding of language |
| Ischemic Stroke | *blood vessels in the brain become blocked by a blood clot
-> Oxygen depletion damages/kills neurons
~80% of all strokes are Ischemic |
| Hemorrhagic Stroke | *an artery in the brain leaks or ruptures
-increased pressure kills/damages neurons
-usually due to an Aneurysm (a weak spot in an artery wall) |
| Animal Research on Brain Processes:
-> Typical Methodology (step#1) | 1)Baseline data collected on animal's behavior |
| Animal Research on Brain Processes:
-> Typical Methodology (step#2) | 2)Specific portion of brain is "lesioned" and destroyed via chemical injection or electric shock using a Stereotaxic Frame.
->Control group is put through a "Sham Surgery" and experience the same stress without destroying the brain regions. |
| Animal Research on Brain Processes:
-> Typical Methodology (step#3) | 3)Animals behavior is measured again |
| Animal Research on Brain Processes:
-> Typical Methodology (step#4) | 4)Determine if intended brain area was the only part lesioned, then euthanize the animals in order to freeze and dissect their brains. |
| Data Collection Methods | 1)Observation
2)Self-Report
3)Physiological |
| Observational Research | -behavior observed and recorded |
| Self-Report | -people provide information about their own behavior |
| Physiological Research | -biological activity is measured and recorded |
| Operational Definition | Psychological concept of interest:
*intelligence
*motivation
*aggressiveness
*self-esteem
*depression
*anxiety
... etc. |
| Determine what to use as a measure of the concept: | 1)either observation, self-report, or physiological
2)should be quantifiable (measurable) |
| Research Methods:
-Descriptive Research | Goal: describe/document people with regard to some variable (any characteristic on which people can differ) |
| Descriptive Research
<Survey Research> | ->Self-report
survey/questionnaire- (often "rating scale" SA to SD) |
| Advantages and Disadvantages of Descriptive Research | Advantages:
-quick, easy, lots of info.
Disadvantages:
-inaccurate memory/estimation
-cannot report animals or small children
-"social desirability" (ex. % of high school students that report having sex at least once) |
| Problems with Descriptive Survey Research questions | 1)Double Questions-
2 questions embedded in one
2)Biased Wording-
leads to certain responses
3)Unclear Meaning-
poor/vague wording |
| Descriptive Research
<Observational Research> | 2 main types:
> Naturalistic-
observer behavior as it naturally occurs
> Non-naturalistic-
manipulate some aspect of situations and observe behavior |
| Advantages and Disadvantages of Descriptive Observational Research | Advantages:
-relatively easy
-"unobtrusive"-> captures a true picture of behavior
-well-suited for certain populations
Disadvantages:
-time intensive
-open to observer bias |
| Research Methods:
-Correlational Research | ->observational, self-report, physiological
Goal: to understand relationship between two variables
ex)money given to charity Vs. hours spent in church
*scatter plot data |
| 2 Directions of Correlation | 1)Positive
2)Negative
...or No correlation because the data is too scattered |
| What conclusions can we draw from correlation? | 3 possibilities:
1)variable A causes variable B
2)variable B causes variable A
3)variable C causes variable A&B
variable C is a mediator variable, meaning it was not measured but it affects the two measured variables. |
| Advantages and Disadvantages of Correlational Research | Advantages:
-relatively easy
-provides insight
-allows predictions
Disadvantages:
-uncertain conclusions |
| Research Methods:
-Experimental Research | ->observational, self-report, physiological
Goal: Identify causal relationship between variables |
| 3 key components of Experimental Research | 1)random selection of participants
2)random assignment into groups
->experimental group
->control group
3)keep all extraneous variables constant between groups |
| Independent Variable | -what is manipulated or changed in the experiment |
| Dependent Variable | -what is affected by the change and measured at the end of the experiment |
| Two Groups Design | 1 independent variable
with 2 levels |
| Multiple Groups Design | 1 independent variable
with 3 or more levels |
| Factorial Group Design | 2 independent variables
with 2 or more levels each
->Simplest Design:
2x2 design
->More complex designs:
2x3 or 3x3 designs...etc. |
| Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Research | Advantages:
-allows cause/effect conclusions
Disadvantages:
-difficult to conduct
-limited to "Generalizability" |
| Ethical Treatment of Participants | Welfare of <-----------------> Knowledge
Participants Gained |
| APA Guidelines | Ethical Research:
-protect from physical/emotional harm
-obtain informed consent
-maintain confidentiality
-justify deception
(ex. IQ test; top 10% and bottom 10% -> self-esteem)
-debrief the participants (tell the truth) |
| Developmental Psychology | "From womb, to tomb"
->study of biological, behavioral, cognitive, and emotional changes from conception to death |
| Jean Piaget
(1896-1980) | *Studied Cognitive Development and Object Permanence in the Sensorimotor Stage |
| Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Research | Advantages:
-allows cause/effect conclusions
Disadvantages:
-difficult to conduct
-limited to "Generalizability" |
| Stages of Developmental Psychology:
1) Sensorimotor Stage | (birth -2 years)
-coordinating sensory experience with motor activity (physical movement)
-Key achievement of stage:
*Understanding Object Permanence (knowing that an object exists although it is out of sight)
~Piaget's estimate: ~8 months |
| Renee Baillargeon | -Participants: 32 infants ~3.5 months average
1/2 in control group ->toy passes completely through sight
1/2 in experimental group->toy disappears then reappears on other side
+2 "blind" observers unsure of what to look for |
| Karen Wynn | Participants: 26 infants ~4 months average
->Observed infants' understanding of numbers
1/2 control group->revealed 10 blocks and ~7.4 seconds stare time
1/2 experimental group->revealed 5 blocks and ~10.3 seconds stare time |
| Language Development | -Comprehension (Receptive) Vocabulary
-Production (Expressive) Vocabulary
-> 4 stages |
| 4 Stages of Production (Expressive) Vocabulary | 1)Cooing (0-4 months)
2)Babbling (4-9 months)
3)One-Word Stage (1 year)
->Typically Nouns:
*Ball, Milk, etc.
4)Two-Word Stage (2 years)
->mini-sentences with simple themes
*"See Cow", "Daddy go?", "Ride Car" |
| Stages of Developmental Psychology:
1) Preoperational Stage | (2 - 7 years)
-possess extensive "internal representations" of objects and people
-but limited in logic and cognitive "operations"
Ex) About 2 1/2 years old:
Q: why do you like Snow White?
A: because she's my favorite |
| Preoperational Stage:
-> Types of Cognitive Limitations (#1) | 1) Egocentrism:
-physically
-mentally
(unable to see any point of view other than your own)
Ex) False-Belief Test with Doll+ Cabin+ Mountain Model |
| Preoperational Stage:
-> Types of Cognitive Limitations (#2) | 2) Centration:
->children don't understand:
-"class inclusion" (1 class of things can contain several subclasses) ex. dogs + cats=BOTH animals
-"conservation" (quantity remains constant despite phycical changes) ex. water in tall vs. short glass |
| Erik Erikson | ->Studied the Life Stages of Development
Age: adolescence
Crisis: Identity vs. role confusion
Age: Early Adulthood
Crisis: Intimacy vs. Isolation |
| Identity vs. role confusion
(Age: 15-20) | Conflict Unresolved:
(Role Confusion)-> lack of cohesion self-image;
"Fragmented" self
<Moratorium> phases in adolescence
("Integrated Identity")-> comfortable sense of self; unique but socially acceptable |
| Research on Identity and "Self-Verification"
(Dutton & Lake)- concept | Self-Verification:
-behavior to confirm existing sense of identity |
| Research on Identity and "Self-Verification"
(Dutton & Lake)- study pt.1 | 1.white males- survey of rascist beliefs
2.contacted "non-rascists"
3."Polygraph Test"- viewed photos of blacks & whites |
| Research on Identity and "Self-Verification"
(Dutton & Lake)- study cont'd | IV= feedback
DV= amount of $ given to black homeless man (confederate= planted for study)
1/2 told ->racist
1/2 told -> not racist |
| Research on Identity and "Self-Verification"
(Dutton & Lake)- results | Results:
DV= amount of $ given to the black homeless man
->Group told they were "racist" gave 3x more money than the "not-racists"
*the subjects were then debriefed |
| Intimacy vs. Isolation
(Age: 20-40) | Conflict Unresolved:
(Isolation)-> lonliness, and denial of intimacy needs
Conflict Resolved:
(Intimacy)-> able to develop close, loving, meaningful relationships |
| Synaptic Vesicles | hold neurotransmitters |
| Neurotransmitters in Synapse | May Either send:
-Excitatory messages
or
-Inhibitory messages |
| Positive Correlation | A relationship with...
-People HIGH on 1st variable tend to be HIGH on 2nd variable
-People LOW on 1st variable tend to be LOW on 2nd variable
**The strength of a correlation can range from "very strong" to "very weak" |
| Negative Correlation | A relationship with...
-People HIGH on 1st variable tend to be LOW on 2nd variable
-People LOW on 1st variable tend to be HIGH on 2nd variable |
