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Criminology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Behavior Theory | This expansion allowed them to identify the learning process, and included elements such as operant behavior, respondent condition |
| Definitions | One of the four main concepts of Akers’ social learning theory. The process through which an individual rationalizes, evaluates, and assigns right and wrong. |
| Differential Association | A theory of crime and delinquency developed by Sutherland. This is a social learning theory presented in nine steps. Criminality is basically the result of engaging in inappropriate behaviors exhibited by those with whom we interact. |
| Differential Identification | In this view, people commit criminal or delinquent acts if they believe that it will lead to acceptance by and approval of these important people in their lives. |
| Differential Reinforcement | The concept refers to the potential rewards and punishments for committing or not committing a criminal or deviant act. This process includes a consideration of punishments and rewards |
| Discriminative Stimuli | Internal or external factors or cues that aid an individual in determining an appropriate response to a given situation. |
| Imitation | One of the four main concepts of Akers’ social learning theory. Behavior modeled by others for an individual may be copied by that individual. Impressions of the individual doing the modeling, along with perceived risks and rewards, will factor int |
| Negative Reinforcement | This refers to an individual escaping something painful such as a punishment or reprimand by committing a certain act. |
| Neutralizing Definitions | This type of definition helps a person justify committing a crime by making it seem that although the act itself might be wrong, under certain conditions it is all right. |
| Operant Conditioning | The view that voluntary actions and decisions made by an individual are influenced and shaped by punishments and rewards found in the external world. |
| Positive Reinforcement | This refers to an individual receiving something of value for committing a certain act. This may include things such as money, food, or approval. |
| Retroflexive Reformation | This process is based upon differential association and often takes place in a group setting working with both offenders and non-offenders. This concept suggests that the offenders in such groups who join on the side of the non-offenders in attemptin |
| Self-Reinforcement | The exercise of self control used by an individual to reinforce his or her own behavior, by seeing that behavior through the eyes of another. |
| Social Learning Theory | In general, social learning theory proposes that both criminal and conforming behavior are acquired, maintained, or changed by the same process of interaction with others. The difference lies in the conforming or deviant direction or balance of the s |
| Social Reinforcement | This refers to the actual, perceived, expected, tangible, or intangible rewards or punishments conveyed upon an individual by society or a subset of society. |
| Social structure/learning model | A model proposed by Akers in which social structural factors have an indirect effect on an individual’s actions through the social learning process. |
| Symbolic Interactionism | The process by which two or more individuals share a commonly understood language or set of symbols. All individuals have the ability to incorporate other people’s reactions into their own behavior, and use those reactions as part of their own unde |
| Control Theories. | A classification of theories that claim to ask not why do people commit criminal acts, but why do they not commit criminal acts? These theories assume everyone has the desire to commit criminal and deviant acts, and seeks to answer why some people re |
| Delinquent Subculture | A group of delinquent peers which may influence an individual to commit criminal acts in order to receive approval from the group. This concept works in conjunction with control theory and may pull an individual towards delinquency. |
| Drift Theory | This theory states that people can ‘drift’ or float back and forth between obeying and breaking the law. People can use techniques of neutralization as excuses to break the law when other forms of social control are weak. When social control is stro |
| External Control. | A concept in control theory in which agents outside the control of the individual are responsible for keeping that individual from committing criminal or deviant acts. These agents include parents, teachers, or law enforcement. |
| Internal Control. | A concept in control theory which explains why a person will not commit a criminal act by reference to the person internally monitoring and controlling his or her own behavior. This includes such things as feelings of guilt and not wanting to disappo |
| Natural Motivation | This refers to the belief in control theories that the desire to commit criminal acts is uniform and spread evenly across society. |
| Self-Control theory | A specific type of control theory developed by Gottfredson and Hirschi in which self-control is the key factor in understanding criminal and deviant acts. |
| self-Concept | An element of containment theory thought to be responsible for insulating an individual from criminal activity. Similar to self-esteem. |
| Social Bonding theory | A control theory that states that individuals will commit criminal or delinquent acts when their ties (bonds) to society are weakened or have broken. There are four types of bonds: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. When the bonds are |
| Social Control | Under a control theory perspective, social control refers to those elements that keep an individual from committing a criminal or deviant act. Examples include the family, church, and school. |
| De-institutionalization | The removal of juveniles from jails, detention centers, and institutions. Removing juveniles from these facilities, and when possible removing status and minor offenders from the juvenile justice system as a whole, is the most basic type of diversion |
| Disintegrative Shaming | The process by which an individual is punished, labeled, and made to feel shame for committing a deviant act in a manner that degrades and devalues the individual. |
| Diversion Movement | This refers to all those efforts to divert individuals, primarily youth but also adults who are suspected of or have been charged with minor offenses, from the full and formal process of the juvenile or adult justice system. The intent is to reduce t |
| Faith-Based Programs | These are religiously based programs which can be operated within the institution or the larger community. They can be run by inmates or religious leaders, and use spiritual beliefs and values to change offenders’ attitudes and behaviors. |
| Labeling Theory | The theory that the formal and informal application of stigmatizing and deviant “labels” or tags applied to an individual by society will not deter, but rather instigate future deviant or criminal acts. |
| Netwidening | A problem that occurs when offenders who would have been released from the system are placed in a program simply because a program exists. This often occurs in diversion programs. Boot camps may be a viable option to keep kids out of institutions, b |
| Primary Deviance | Deviant acts that are committed in the absence of or preceding the application of a deviant label for the acts. While it may or may not be the first crime a person has committed, it is not based on a response to being labeled as a deviant (see Second |
| Reintegrative shaming | The process by which an individual is punished, labeled, and made to feel shame for committing a deviant act, but done in a way that the individual who is shamed is brought back into the larger community and restored to a position of respectability. |
| Restorative Justice | This refers to programs which are designed to make offenders take responsibility for their actions and restore them and their victims, as much as possible, back to things as they existed before the offense. Often offenders will apologize to the victi |
| Secondary Deviance | Criminal or deviant acts that are committed in response to, or because of, a label that has been applied to an individual. |
| Anomie | A state of normlessness or norm confusion within a society. The term was coined by Durkheim to explain suicide in French society, and later applied by Merton and others to other forms of deviance and crime in American society. |
| Chicago Area Projects. | This was the first large-scale urban delinquency prevention program. Started by Shaw and McKay in the 1930s, it used their social disorganization theory as a core. |
| Cohen's Anomie Strain | This version of anomie theory examines juveniles. Though Cohen is in agreement with Merton that blocked goals produce strain, his theory looks at status as opposed to material gain. Under this perspective, juveniles are measured against the standard |
| Differential opportunity | A theory which draws from anomie and the work of Merton and Cohen; the social disorganization theory of Shaw and McKay; and the differential association theory of Sutherland. This view says that although one may be denied legitimate opportunity, th |
| Focal Concerns of the Lower class Culture | list of focal concerns or values believed to be prevalent among lower-class males was developed by Miller to describe the behavior of street corner groups or gangs. According to Miller, the behavior of these juveniles was an adaptation to lower-cla |
| General strain theory of crime and deliquency | A micro-level social psychological revision of Agnew’s strain theory. According to this theory, criminal and deviant acts are one possible adaptation to stress. The three major types of deviance-producing strain are: failure to achieve positively |
| Institutional Anomie | created by Messner and Rosenfeld. The premise of the theory is that American society is set up in such a way soas to give prestige and priority to economic institutions. This means that the accumulation of wealth and individual success are people |
| Merton's Anomie Theory | This version of anomie theory looks at American society, and what happens when an individual realizes that not everyone can achieve the American dream of equal opportunity for economic success. |
| Social Disorganization | Social disorganization refers to the breakdown in traditional social control and organization in the society, community, neighborhood, or family so that deviant and criminal activity result. It is most often applied to urban crime. |
| Urban Ecology | A theory that views a city as analogous to the natural ecological community of plants and animals. This relationship is understood through the use of concentric zones that spread from the center to the outer regions of a city. This work done by Park |
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