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Philosophy Test 4
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Ethics | The study of morality |
| Morality | consists of the standards that an individual or group has about what is right and wrong or good and evil. |
| cultural relativism | the belief that different cultures have different moralities and that what one culture believes is wrong, another culture may believe is right. |
| Ethical absolutism | states that one and only one correct morality exists. |
| ethical relativism | denies the existence of a single, universally applicable moral standard. |
| Emotivism | claims that the primary function of language is to express emotions and feelings. |
| Conscenquentialist theory | A theory that measures the morality of an action by its consequences is a: |
| The view that only pleasure is worth having for its own sake | hednoism |
| Example of a person is an act utilitarian | Richard Taylor |
| Who developed the categorical imperative? | Kant |
| What did Aristotle endorse? | Virtue ethics |
| What does Nel Noddings argue? | Care is superior to principles |
| Conscequentialist theory | measures the morality of an action by its non-moral consequences. |
| Act Utilitarianism | claims that the right action is the one that itself produces more pleasure and less pain for everyone than any other action |
| Egoism | some ethicists believe that in deciding the morality of an action, we should consider only the good and bad consequences for ourselves. Contends that we act morally when we act in a way that best promotes our own long term intrest. |
| Rule Utilitarianism | Claims that the right action is the one that follows those moral rules that will product more pleasure and less pain if followed by everyone. |
| Jeremy Benthams view on pleasure/pain | "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. They govern us in all we do, in all we say , in all we think. The principle of utility recognizes this subjection. |
| hednoistic calculus | determines how much pleasure an action produces based on many criteria, such as the intensite of the pleasure, how long it lasts, how certain it is to occur, and how likely it is to produce additional pleasure |
| Problems with utilitarianism | consequences are not all that matters in ethics |
| Benefits of utilitarianism | identifies an important aspect of morality. No one can deny that upright behavior does attend to the consequences of what we do. |
| Nonconsequentialist theory | claims that the morality of an action depends on factors other than consequences. Mostly influential theories are those that propose a single rule that governs human conduct and proposes multiple rules. |
| example of Single Rule Theories | divine command theory and Kan'ts categorical Imperative theory |
| example of multiple rule theory | Buddhist ethics |
| Divine command theory | claims that we should always do the will of God, whatever the situation. If we do what God commands then we do the right thing, if we disobey then no matter what the consequence, we do wrong. |
| Epictetus | ancietn stoic philosopher who says to look at human nature and you will see natural tendencies, such as discovering truth and rejecting what is false, to desire what we judge is good for us and feel repelled by what we judge is bad for us |
| Aquinas | the principle of double effect syas that when an action has both a good and a bad effect it produces one good but destroys another. |
| good will | our ability to choose what we will do. A persons ability to make decisions on the basis of reasons. A person with good will does what he does because he believes it to be morally right. |
| Categorical imperative | Kan't ethical formula: Act as if your maxim could be willed to become a universal law; the principal that what is morally right for one person is not morally right for someone else. |
| Buddhist ethics | considers volitional actions as supremely important because they contribute to a persons karma, which then determines a person's future |
| 4 noble truths | 1. whatever is tied to our individuality such as birth, age, disease etc brings suffering 2. We suffer because we crave things 3. ending cravings will end suffering 4.following the 8 fold path ends cravings |
| Nirvana | enlightenment that comes when the limited, clinging self is extinguished. |
| what is meant by natural law | the first principle of morality; it forbids evil and commands good |
| Philosophers associated natural law | Aquinas and Epictetus |
| For Immanuael Kant what is the method for determining the morality of an action? | morality should depend on one's own will-one's own decision making ability |
| Male/Female ethics | men-focus on issues ethics of principle emphasize women-ethics of virtue |
| Aristotle's theory of virtue | concludes that humans achieve happiness only by virtues. Virtue is acquired by repeatedly being made to act virtuously unitl it becomes a habit. Vices are acquired by repeatedly acting viciously until it becomes a habit. |
| One of the first women to support the theory of virtue | Carol Gilligan |
| Kohlberg's 3 main stages of moral development | preconventional, conventional, postconventional |
| social philosophy | the application of moral principles to the problems of society, including the problems of government, justice, and freedom |
| contact theory | says that individual agree to give up certain liberties and rights to the state, which in return guarantees such rights as life liberty and the pursuit of happiness |
| Who held that because humans are selfish and driven by greed, without government life would be a "war of every man against every mna" and life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short" | Hobbes |
| What 3 things are missing in the state of nature according to Locke that makes them establish governments? | 1. a firm, clearly understood interpretation of natural law 2.unbiased judges to resolve disputes 3.personal recourse in the face of injustices |
| Who argued that if people are to act morally they must live under laws that they freely accept? | Rousseau |
| communitarianism | the view that the actual community in which we live should be at the center of our analysis of society and government |
| Who argued that government or the state is a natural outgrowth of our natural tendency to associate with other human beings. | Aristotle |
| According to the communitarian view, what was the problem with social contracts? | it neglects people's social nature by focusing on the individual. |
| Justice | how fairly or unfairly society distributes the benefits and burdens it prodcues |
| retribution | kind of justice that should prevail when punishments are fair |
| distribution | concerns what some consider to be socially just with respect to the allocation of goods in soceity |
| merit | something that deserves a reward or commendation |
| Social utility | society should aim to maximize the total utility of individuals aiming for the greatest of people |
| need/ability | burdens should be distributed by ability, and benefits by need |
| liberty | the state of being free within society from oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one's way of life |
| eternal law | god governs the universe through physical laws, moral laws, and revealed religious laws |
| natural law | applies to human choices and can be known by our natural reason inferred from the nature of human beings that indicates how everyone ought to behave |
| human law | we create or own laws, in order to apply the natural law to the specific circumstances of our society |
| Human rights | rights that all people have simply because they are human be ings; these rights are justified or supported by moral principles that impose the same obligations on all human beings |
| duty | an obligation; what one is morally required to do |
| 4 features of a just law | 1. they serve the common good of the whole community 2.they do not exceed the authorized power of the lawmaker 3.they do not unjustly discriminate against some and unfairly advantage others. 4. they do not require citizens to violate their religiousbel |
| Who claims that the meaning of life is a meaningless question? | logical positivists |
| Who argued that the meaning of life is the only important question? | Camus |
| Why did positivists claim that the meaning of life is a meaningless question? | because it is not a factual question that can be resolved through sensory perception. |
| 3 people who were positivists? | 1.ayer 2.carnap 3.Tolstoy |
| what is the human progress view | the view that life has meaning only when it is related to something bigger or more important than the individual's life |
| Who argues that the larger reality that gives an individual life meaning is the historical progress of the world toward an ever greater consciousness of freedom | Hegel |
| Nihilism | the view that nothing exists, that nothing has value; the social view that conditions are so bad that they should be destroyed and replaced by something better. |
| subjective meaning | suggests that because meaning can be created through our choices, life can have meaning through our commitment to any of a wide variety of worth human concerns |
| Who argues that one gives one's life subjective meaning by choosing something for which one is willing to live or die, in particular by committing oneself to aesthetic, ethical or religious life. | kierkegaard |
| Felt that life was meaningless for his family and everyone | Tolstoy |
| Who felt that nothing has value before it is chosen | Satre/darwin |
| Who felt that god determines the meaning of life | Aquinas |
| According to some philosophers, to insist that one should show tolerance toward other cultures, since morality is culturally relative is to take a position | which is consistent |
| The case of the Dutchman, Johannes van Damme, raised issue of | the cross cultural legitimacy of the death penalty |
| According to some philosophers in this episode, the issue of moral relativity must include not only variations of differences in moral belief but | There being good reasons for holding a belief |
| For an emotivist, moral judgments are | neither true nor false |
| If someone argues against moral relativism, saying that the core of morality has to do with promoting human welfare, then according to this episode one must | give a nonrelativistic account of human welfare |
| The problem of child labor affects how many children worldwide? | 250 million |
| Ethical absolutism | states that one and only one correct morality exists |
| a fundamental point of the theory of ethical relativism | we should be tolerant of the moral beliefs of others and not assume our own are the only correct ones |
| Utilitarianism was a product of the philosophy of which era? | the enlightenment |
| Which two forces govern the actions of humans according to Bentham? | pain and pleasure |
| Bentham and his follower, John Stuart Mill, championed social reforms such as women’s right to vote and humane punishment because | they were likely to produce the greatest good for the greatest number |
| John Stuart Mill added a new dimension to the utilitarian movement by | asserting that there are qualitative differences among pleasures and pain |
| Which utilitarian philosopher had himself preserved as an “auto-icon”? | Jeremy Bentham |
| Consequentialism holds that | no actions are intrinsically immoral |
| The theory of ideal utilitarianism was proposed by | G.E. Moore |
| Sentient creatures , natural habitats, and goods such as art and love, according to G.E. Moore, have | intrinsic value |
| Norwegian philosopher Arne Nacss has argued that | certain natural habitats are living entities and as such can claim equal moral status to that of human beings |
| According to the philosopher Jonathan Glover | in ethics, all that matters is how humans are affected by decisions |
| Utilitarianism, according to peter singer, should consider only | pleasure and pain |
| The most serious weakness of ethical egoism according to some ethicists | it undermines the moral point of view |
| According to Emmanuel Kant, the source of morality is what? | Reason |
| The only thing that is good without qualification is, for Kant, | a good will |
| Within the Kantian moral system, a maxim is | the rule or reaosn by which a person acts |
| What does the categorical imperative ask? | Can I will the maxim of my action to be universal law |
| For kant, if an action can be made a universal law then | all autonomous being could act according to it |
| According to a second formulation of the categorical imperative persons are what? | only to be treated as ends, and never as means. |
| Kantian ethics is an attempt to describe a morality that | reflect the dignity of persons |
| A traditional problem with the Kantian system of morality is | resolving apparent conflicts between competing duties |
| Virtue ethics tends to focus on what? | character |
| In ancient Greek, virtue was synonymous with what? | excellence |
| A core concept to the ancient Greek ethical theory was | eudemonia |
| In ancient Greece, if you mastered a number of virtues, then you were said to possess | phronesia |
| Virtue ethics, as opposed to utilitarianism of Kantianism, does not attempt to provide a | formula or decision procedure for evaluating all actions |
| According to Aristotle, virtue is to be found in the | mean between deficiency and excess |
| Generosity has been described as that virtue which falls between what? | stinginess and profligacy |
| Who argues that modern ethics has forgotten moral virtue | Alasdair Macintryre |
| The social contract theory hold that the power of the state is based on what? | the consent of the people |
| Thomas Hobbes believed that the best form of government was one that what? | exercised absolute powers |
| John locke argued that in a state of nature people will what? | seek out and join in society with otehrs |
| Who said “The greatest and chief end of men uniting into commonwealths, and putting themselves under government, is the preservation of their property”? | John Locke |
| In his book, A Theory of Justice, philosopher John Rawls describes an imaginary thought experiment “characterized so as to lead to a certain conception of justice.” Which two principles of justice did Rawls think people would agree to? | 1.equality in the assignment of basic rights and duties 2.social and economic inequalities are just only if they result in compensating benefits for everyone, and in particular for the least advantaged members of society |
| Many communitarians have criticized Rawls’ social contract theory because it what? | ignores the vital importance of a community's cultural traditions |
| The idea that a person becomes actualized by subjecting personal interests to the larger common good of the State, thereby obtaining true freedom, was articulated by | Georg Hegel |
| The challenge to communitarianism that “individuals have rights and these are trumps over the social good,” was expressed by whom? | Ronal Dworkin |
| argue that humans cannot develop fully unless they live in the state and that the state is more important than the individual citizen | Aristotle and Hegel |
| According to Aristotle, justice is distributed in society according to an individual's what? | Merit |
| Karl Marx’s ideas of social justice drew on the ideas of | aristotle |
| Karl Marx based his analysis of capitalism on his study of | economic growth |
| John Rawls’ theory of social justice argues that all members of a society are equal based upon their what? | moral status as individuals |
| According to Rawls’ theory of social justice, inequality can be reconciled with social justice by means of what? | A distribution of social resources through welfare programs |
| The ideas of Robert Nozick call for what? | The elimination of taxation for the purposes of redistributing social resources |
| Empowerment is a type of economic aid that does not include what? | direct monetary relief |
| Large disparities in wealth can be harmful to societies that value a commonwealth, is a view held by who? | Michael Sandel |
| who thought htat justice means that each should act and be treated according to his or her abilities, achievements, and social status. | Plato and Aristotle |
| Who argued that a just society is one that distributes benefits and burdens in whatever way will produce the greatest social benefits or the lowest social harms | Mill |
| The idea that man has no purpose is central to the ideas of who? | Darwin |
| The idea that human history is progressing toward a goal of fuller achievement of human freedom and reason is central to the philosophy of | G.W.F. Hegel |
| The ideas of Karl Marx are best described as waht? | aristoelian |
| The view that meaning in life can be found in ourselves and our inner choices is associated with which philosopher? | Soren Kierkegaard |
| What state of mind did the philosopher Soren Kierkegaard regard as modern man’s symptom of the awareness that the meaning of life cannot be found in external sources? | anguish |
| Which existentialist philosopher describes three stages through which a seeker of meaning in life passes? | Soren Kierkegaard |
| The French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre shares with Soren Kierkegaard the idea that | meaning in life is based upon our free choices and commitments |
| According to Jean-Paul Sartre, to live in “bad faith” is to | refuse the anguish that goes along with meaning that one chooses in life |
| The French philosopher Simone de Beauvoir focused her writings on which central idea of existentialism? | that the individual has no essential nature |
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