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| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| E.L. Thorndike - Learning Theorist | Law of Effect - Cause and effect chain of behavior revolving around reinforcement. Credited with writing the first Educational Psychology textbook in 1903. Instrumental Learning - learning that occurs through "trial, error and accidental success". Develop |
| Kurt Lewin | Considered to be the founder of Social Psychology. Theory of Association - grouping things together based on the fact that they occur together in time and space (precursor to behaviorism). Field Theory - total of influences upon individual behavior. Three |
| Ivan Pavlov - Learning Theorist | Classical Conditioning - teaching an organism to respond to a neutral stimulus by pairing the neutral stimulus with a not so neutral stimulus |
| John B. Watson - Learning Theorist | Founded school of behaviorism. Everything could be explained by stimulus-response chains and conditioning was the key factor in developing these chains. Developmental theory - Children are passively molded by the environment and their behavior emerges thr |
| B.F. Skinner - Learning Theorist/Behaviorist | Conducted first scientific experiments to prove the Law of Effect and Operant Conditioning. Created the Skinner Box. Proved that animals are influenced by reinforcement. Wrote Walden Two and Beyond Freedom and Dignity - control of human behavior |
| Fritz Heider - Learning/Motivation/Social Theorist | Balance Theory - the study of how people make their feelings and/or actions consistent to preserve psychological homeostasis.Founder of Attribution Theory - the study of how people infer the causes of their behavior vs. others' behavior. External or Inter |
| Charles Osgood & Percy Tannenbaum - Learning/Motivation/Social Theorists | Congruity theory - a type of balance theory that predicts that if there are two contradicting people, sets of information, or concepts on which a judgment must be made by a single observer, the observer will experience pressure to change his or her judgme |
| Leon Festinger - Learning/Motivation/Social Theorist | Cognitive Dissonance - an uncomfortable feeling caused by holding beliefs that do not match actions. People have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance. Social Comparison Theory: Drive for people to evaluate their own abilities and opinions. When there |
| Clark Hull - Learning/Motivation Theorist | Developed mechanistic behavioral ideas. Drive x Habit = Performance - Individuals are motivated by drive and act according to old successful habits |
| Edward Tolman - Learning/Motivation Behavioral Theorist | Theory of Purposive Behavior - asserted that learning is acquired through meaningful behavior. Expectation x Value = Performance (Expectancy Value Theory) - people are motivated by goals that they think they might actually meet and goals that have importa |
| Victor Vroom - Learning/Motivation Theorist | Expectancy Theory: Motivation = Valence x Expectancy. Applied theory to individual behavior in large organizations. Base class workers do not expect to receive incentives and therefore lack motivation. |
| Henry Murray & David McCleeland - Learning/Motivation Theorist | Studied possibility that people are motivated by the Need for Achievement - goal is to feel successful, either by pursuing success or avoiding failure |
| John Atkinson -Learning/Motivation Theorist | Proposed that people who set realistic goals with intermediate risk sets feel pride with accomplishment and want to succeed more than they fear failure. These people are unlikely to set unrealistic/risky goals when success is unlikely. |
| Neil Miller - Learning/Motivation Theorist | Approach Avoidance Conflict - the state one feels when a certain goal has both pros and cons. Far from goal = focus on pros, close to goal = focus on cons |
| Donald Hebb | Postulated Yerkes-Dodson Effect - a medium amount of arousal is best for performance. Over arousal or under arousal could hamper performance of tasks. Memory Tree: memory involves changes of synapse and neural pathways. 6 classes of factors in behavioral |
| Albert Bandura - Social Learning Theorist | Studied Modeling -Learning and behaving by imitating others. Performed experiments with the Bobo Doll |
| John Garcia - Social Learning Theorist | Garcia Effect: explained preparedness - shows how certain conditioned responses are more easily associated with certain stimuli. ex: pairing taste with illness instead of other factors, such as light or sound with the illness |
| M.E. Olds - Social Learning Theorist | Performed experiments in which electrical stimulation of pleasure centers in the brain were used as positive reinforcement - evidence against the drive reduction theory |
| Hermann Ebbinghaus - Learning/Memory Theorist | Learning Curve: Graph showing slow increase, then rapid increase, then plateau. Proposed a Forgetting Curve: which depicts a sharp drop in savings immediately after learning and then levels off, with a slight downward trend. First to study memory systemat |
| Noam Chomsky - Language Theorist | Transformational Grammar - differentiates between surface structure and deep structure in language. Surface Structure - the way that words are organized. Deep Structure - underlying meaning of a sentence. Innate Language Acquisition Device - humans have a |
| Benjamin Whorf - Language Theorist | Whorfian Hypothesis - language, or how a culture says things, influences that culture's perspective. |
| Roger Brown - Language/Social/Developmental Theorist | Found that children's understanding of grammatical rules develops as they make hypotheses about how syntax works and then self-correct with experience. |
| Katherine Nelson - Language Theorist | Found that language really begins to develop with the onset of active speech rather than the first year of only listening |
| William Labov - Language Theorist | Studied Ebonics - found that it had its own complex internal structure, not simply incorrect English |
| Lev Vygotsky | studied the development of word meanings and found them to be complex and altered by personal experience. Language is a tool involved in the development of abstract thinking. Zone of proximal development: the range between children's present level of know |
| Charles Osgood - Learning/Motivation/Social/Language Theorist | Studied Semantics - word meanings. Created Semantic Differential Charts - allowed people to chart the meaning of words on graphs. Postulated that words have similar connotations for cultures or subcultures |
| Ulric Neisser - Memory Theorist | Coined the term Icon - a brief visual memory that lasts for about one second. Postulated about Backward Masking - when subjects are exposed to a brief visual or auditory stimulus before the iconic image or sound fades, the first image will be erased |
| George Miller - Memory Theorist | Found "the magic number": short term memory has the capacity of about seven items, give or take 2 |
| Frederick Bartlett - Memory Theorist | Found that memory is Reconstructive (people are more likely to remember the ideas or semantics of a story rather than the details or grammar of a story) rather than rote. |
| Allan Paivio - Memory Theorist | Dual Code Hypothesis - items will be better remembered if they are encoded both visually and semantically |
| Fergus Craik & Robert Lockhart - Learning/Memory theorist | Learning and recall depend on the depth of processing. Different levels of processing exist from the most superficial phonological level to the deep semantic level. The deeper an item is processed, the easier it is to learn and recall. |
| Elizabeth Loftus - Cognitive/Memory Theorist | Found that memory of traumatic events is altered by the event itself and by the way that questions about the event are phrased. |
| Karl Lashley - Memory Theorist | Memories are stored diffusely in the brain not just in one area. |
| Brenda Milner - Memory Theorist | Studied a patient who was given a lesion of the hippocampus to treat severe epilepsy. He could remember things from before the surgery, and STM was still intact, but he could not store any new LTM. |
| J.P. Guilford - Cognitive Theorist/Intelligence Theorist | Convergent Thinking and Divergent Thinking. Model of Intelligence: 3 factor structure = 5 (contents) x 6 (products) x 6 (operations) = 150 distinct types of intelligence |
| Allen Newell & Herbert Simon - Cognitive Theorists | Introduced the first Computer Simulation Models which are designed to solve problems as humans do. They first called them the logic theorist and revamped them as the general problem solver. |
| Elizabeth Loftus & Allan Collins - Cognitive Theorists | Suggested that people have hierarchical semantic networks in their memory that group together related items. |
| Allan Collins & Ross Quillian - Cognitive Theorists | Assert that people make decisions about the relationship between items by searching their cognitive semantic hierarchies: the farther apart in the hierarchy, the longer it will take to see a connection. |
| William James & Carl Lange - Early Theorists | James-Lange Theory of Emotion - all emotions are developed from, and can be reduced to, physiological reactions to stimuli: bodily reactions to stimuli cause emotion |
| Cannon and Bard | Theory of emotion: Emotions and cognitive appraisal occur at the same time. |
| Stanley Schachter & Jerome Singer - Cognitive Theorists | Two Factor Theory of Emotion: The subjective experience of emotion is based on the interaction between changes in the physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation of that arousal |
| James Gibson - Perception Theorist | Perceptual Development - the increased ability of a child to make finer discriminations among stimuli |
| Eleanor Gibson & Richard Walk - Perception Theorists | Developed the Visual Cliff apparatus to study whether depth perception is innate. |
| Robert Fantz - Perception Theorist | Found that infants prefer relatively complex and sensical displays. Designed the preferential looking method |
| Ernst Weber - Perception Theorist | Weber's Law: Just Noticible Difference: applies to all senses but only to a limited range of intensities. The law states that a stimulus needs to be increased by a constant fraction of its original value in order to be noticed as noticeably different. Dif |
| J.A. Swet - Perception Theorist | Theory of Signal Detection: Explains Response bias: Subjects senses are influenced by non-sensory factors such as motivation for prize. Demand Characteristics: participants form an interpretation of the experiment's purpose and unconsciously change their |
| Hermann von Helmholtz | Place-Resonance Theory of Sound perception: different parts of the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies. Operative for tones higher then 4,000 Hz. Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision: the retina contains three types of color receptors, red, b |
| Charles Darwin - Ethological Theorist | Made the concept of evolution scientifically plausible by asserting that natural selection was at its core. Natural Selection - due to variation among species and the fact that more offspring are born than will survive to maturity, a natural process occur |
| Konrad Lorenz - Ethological Theorist | Known as the founder of Ethology - the study of animal behaviors, especially innate behaviors that occur in a natural habitat. Imprinting - in certain species the young attach to or imprint on the first moving object they see after birth. Also known for s |
| Nikolaas Tinbergen - Ethological Theorist | Best known for his use of models in a natural setting: Stickleback fish and Herring Gull Chicks. Supernormal Sign Stimulus - artificial stimuli that exaggerate the naturally occurring sign stimulus or releaser: more effective than the natural stimuli |
| Karl von Frisch - Ethological Theorist | Famous for the discovery of the honeybee dance. |
| Walter Cannon - Ethological Theorist | Coined term Fight or Flight - the internal phsiological changes that occur in an organism in response to a perceived threat, providing the organism with the appropriate response to the situation. Homeostasis - the internal regulation of body to maintain e |
| Wolfgang Kohler - Ethological/Comparative Theorist | Experimented with chimpanzees and insight in problem solving. Insight - by perceiving the whole of the the situation, organisms are able to create novel solutions to problems rather than just by trial and error. Proposed isomorphism: The doctrine that the |
| Harry Harlow - Ethological/Comparative Theorist | Researched development with rhesus monkeys and is known for his results with social isolation and maternal stimulation. Babies preferred social comfort from cloth mother over food from wire mother. |
| R.C. Tyron - Ethological/Comparative Theorist | Selectively bred "maze bright" and "maze dull" rats to demonstrate the heritability of behavior. |
| R.M. Cooper & John Zubek - Ethological/Comparative Theorists | Demonstrated the interaction between heredity and the environment. Also worked with "dull" and "bright" rats |
| Eric Kandel - Ethological/Comparative Theorist | Studied the Sea Slug Aplysia and posited that learning and memory are evidenced by changes in synapses and neural pathways |
| Sigmund Freud - Psychodynamic Theorist | Originator of Psychoanalytic Theory - Views conflict between id, ego and superego as central to human nature. Placed great importance on unconscious motivations. |
| Jean Charcot & Pierre Janet | Developed procedure of Hypnosis - a mental state or imaginative role-enactment |
| Joseph Breuer - Physician | Developed technique of Free Association - psychoanalytic patients are invited to relate whatever comes into their minds during the analytic session, and not to censor their thoughts. |
| Alfred Adler - Psychoanalytical Theorist | Developed Individual (Adlerian) Theory - people are viewed as creative, social and whole. People are in the process of "becoming" and are motivated by social needs and feelings of inferiority that arise when the current self does not match the ideal self: |
| Carl Gustav Jung - Analytic Theorist | Developed Analytical Theory - Psyche is directed towards life and awareness and contains both conscious and unconscious elements. Felt that Freud placed too much emphasis on the libido concept. Unconscious is made up of Personal (experience based) and Col |
| Carl Rogers - Humanistic Theorist | Client Centered (Person Centered) Therapy - Humanistic approach, based on the optimistic belief that individuals have an actualizing tendency that can direct them our of conflict and toward their full potential. This is achieved by having congruence betwe |
| B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov, and Joseph Wolpe - Behavioral Theorists | Behavior Theory - the application of classical and operant conditioning principles to human abnormal behavior, a model of behavior based on learning: maladaptive behavior is changed through new learning |
| Joseph Wolpe | Systematic Desensitization - applies classical conditioning in order to relieve anxiety: patient is exposed to increasingly anxiety-provoking stimuli until the anxiety associated with those stimuli is decreased |
| Aaron Beck | Cognitive Theory - Conscious thought patterns (instead of emotions or behaviors) are most influential in people's lives. Developed the Beck Depression Inventory - used as a research tool and in clinical settings to determine the number of depressive sympt |
| Albert Ellis | Rational Emotive Theory - intertwined thoughts and feelings produce behavior |
| Fritz Perls, Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka | Founded school of Gestalt Theory - the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. Encourages people to stand apart from beliefs, biases and attitudes derived from the past. The goal is to fully experience and perceive the present in order to become a who |
| Victor Frankl | Existential Theory - a person's greatest struggles are those of being vs. non-being and of meaningfulness and meaninglessness. Desire of the individual is to strive towards a genuine and meaningful existence. Logo-therapy |
| Hans Eysenck | Criticized the effectiveness of psychotherapy after analyzing studies that indicated psychotherapy was no more successful than no treatment at all. Used factor analysis to identify the underlying traits of the two personality-type dimensions - Introversio |
| Anna Freud | Applied Freudian ideas to child psychology and development |
| Melanie Klein | Pioneered Object-relations theory (the process of developing a mind as one grows in relation to others in the environment) and psychoanalysis with children |
| Karen Horney - Neo-Freudian Theorist | Emphasized culture and society over instinct. Suggested that neuroticism is expressed as movement toward, against and away from people. |
| Harry Stack Sullivan - Neo-Freudian Theorist | Emphasized social and interpersonal relationships |
| Abraham Maslow - Humanistic Theorist | Leader of Humanistic Movement in psychology. Known for Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - pertains to human motivation towards self-actualization |
| Donald Meichenbaum - Cognitive Behavioral Theorist | Stress-inoculation Training - prepares people for foreseeable stressors |
| Eugene Bleuler - Psychiatrist | Renamed Schizophrenia from dementia praecox |
| Martin Seligman - Positive Psychology Theorist | Learned Helplessness - a condition of a human being or an animal in which it has learned to behave helplessly, even when the opportunity is restored for it to help itself by avoiding an unpleasant or harmful circumstance to which it has been subjected. |
| Thomas Szasz - Psychiatrist | Viewed the schizophrenic world as simply misunderstood or artistic. Felt that they should not be treated. |
| Fromm and Reichman | Coined the tern Schizophrenogenic mother, which refers to a type of mother who supposedly causes children to become schizophrenic |
| David Rosenhan - Legal Theorist | Studied the effect of diagnostic labels on the perception of behavior. |
| Jean Piaget - Developmental Theorist | Known for proposing a 4-stage theory of cognitive development. Assimilation and accommodation work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth |
| Rochel Gelman - Developmental Theorist | Showed that Piaget might have underestimated the cognitive ability of preschoolers. Gelman said they can deal with ideas such as quantity in small sets of objects. |
| Lawrence Kohlberg - Development Theorist | Created theory of moral development: Preconventional/Premoral, Conventional/Morality of Conformity, and Postconventional/Morality of Self-Accepted Principles Stages Created Three Gender stages: Gender Labeling 2. Gender stability 3. Gender Consistency |
| Carol Gilligan - Developmental Theorist | Asserted that Kohlberg's moral development theory was biased toward males because it was dominated by rules, whereas women's morality focuses more on compassion |
| Erik Erikson - Developmental Theorist | Life Span Development - addresses the entire life span. Each of the 8 stages has its own unique psychosocial conflict to address: Trust vs Mistrust, Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt, Initiative vs Guilt, Industry vs Inferiority, Identity vs Role Confusion, Int |
| John Bowlby - Developmental Theorist | Suggested that infants are motivated to attach to their mothers for positive reasons (wanting closeness) and negative reasons (avoiding fear). Studied children brought up in foster homes/orphanages who lacked bodily contact. Attachment Theory: Infants are |
| Mary Ainsworth - Development Theorist | Studied attachment through the use of the strange situation. Found that infants displayed different responses depending on whether they were Securely attached, Avoidant, or Ambivalent |
| Diana Baumrind - Development Theorist | Studied the relationship between parenting style and personality development. Authoritarian Parents = Withdrawn & Unhappy Children. Permissive Parents = Children that are Happy, but lacking in Self-Control. Authoritative Parents = Self-reliant, Self-confi |
| Arnold Gesell - Developmental Theorist | People develop as they mature which is a biological process and that environment/nurture fill in the rest of the details. Made a scale to test infant development. Constructed a one-way mirror to study children. Believed temperament was heritable. |
| William Sheldon - Personality Theorist | Devised theory of personality based on Somatotypes or body types to include Endomorph, Mesomorph, and Ectomorph |
| Gordon Allport - Personality Theorist | Focused on the individual approach to personality with conscious motives governed by the proprium (his version of the ego), which he believed acted somewhat consistently based on traits it had developed through experience. Hypothesized a trait hierarchy w |
| Raymond Cattell - Personality Theorist | Used factor analysis to limit Allport's 5,000 personality traits into 16 personality factors |
| Seymour Epstein & Walter Mischel - Personality Theorists | Asserted that trait and type theories have always had a big problem by assuming that a person's behavior is stable across situations and that people fail to take circumstances into account - consistency paradox. Seymore Epstein was critical of personality |
| Nancy Cantor - Personality Theorist | Proposed the Cognitive Prototype Approach - the consistency of behavior is the result of cognitive processes rather than the result of personality traits per se. |
| Kay Deux - Personality Theorist | Found that women's successes at stereotypical "male" tasks are often attributed to luck while men's successes are often attributed to skill. |
| Sandra Bem - Personality Theorist | Studied Androgyny (the possession of both male and female qualities) and created the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Gender Schema theory: children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior acco |
| Matina Horner - Personality Theorist | Suggested that females shunned masculine-type successes not because of fear of failure of lack of interest, but because they feared success and its negative repercussions, such as resentment and rejections. |
| Alice Eagly - Personality Theorist | Found an interaction between gender and social status with regard to how easily an individual might be influenced or swayed. |
| Eleanor Maccoby & Carol Jacklin - Personality Theorists | Scrutinized studies of sex differences and found that relatively few existed that could not be explained away by simple social learning. Found that females do have greater verbal ability and males have greater visual/spatial ability |
| Meyer Friedman & Ray Rosenman - Personality Theorists | Studied Type A personality - Characterized by drive, competitiveness, aggressiveness, tension, and hostility and is most commonly found in middle to upper-class men. |
| Grant Dahlstrom - Personality Theorist | Linked Type A personality to heart disease and other health problems. |
| George Kelley - Personality Theorist | Suggested that Personal Constructs (conscious ideas about the self, others and situations) determine personality and behavior. |
| Julian Rotter - Personality Theorist | Found that External locus of control is a personality characteristic that causes one to view events as the result of luck or fate. Internal locus of control causes a person to view events as the outcome of their own actions. |
| Costa & McCrae - Personality Theorists | Found that personality changes very little after age 30. |
| Henry Murray - Personality Theorist | Developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) - consisting of ambiguous pictures about which the subject is supposed to tell a story. Their story telling is supposed to reveal a projection of the individuals own needs such as the need for achievement, po |
| Norman Triplett - Social Theorist | Conducted the first official social psychology type experiment in 1897 on social facilitation. Found that cyclists performed better when paced by others than when they rode alone |
| Lee Ross - Social Theorist | Studied subjects who were first made to believe a statement and then later told that it was false. The subjects continued to believe the statement if they had processed it and devised their own logical explanations for it. |
| Richard Nisbett - Social Theorist | Showed that we lack awareness for why we do what we do. |
| M.J. Lerner - Social Theorist | Just World Bias - the belief that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people. |
| Ellen Langer - Social Theorist | Studied the Illusion of control - the belief that you can control things that you actually have no influence on. |
| Daryl Bem - Social Theory | Self-Perception Theory - offers an alternative explanation to cognitive dissonance; when people are unsure of their beliefs, they take their cues from their own behavior. Studied risk/conservatives in group decision making |
| Robert Zajonc - Social Theorist | Zajonc Effect: presence of others increases performance on easy tasks but hinders performance on complex tasks. Studied the relationship between birth order and intelligence. Firstborns were slightly more intelligent than secondborns. The more children in |
| Morton Deutsch and Robert Krauss - Social Theorist | Used the Prisoner's Dilemma and the Trucking Company Game story to illustrate the struggle between cooperation and competition: when one party is faced with the risk of having to compete with an equal party and failing, versus the option of cooperating an |
| Stanley Milgram - Social Theorist | Stimulus Overload Theory - explains why urbanites are less pro-social than country people are: urbanites do not need any more interaction. Known for famous study in which participants administered progressively increasing electrical shocks to a " "learner |
| Philip Zimbardo - Social Theorist | Found that people who were wearing hoods were more willing to administer higher levels of shock than people without hoods. Conducted famous Prison Experiment further demonstrating the dangers of conformity and compliance to an authority. Found that antiso |
| Soloman Asch - Social Theorist | Had subjects listen to the staged opinion of others about which lines on a board were equal, the recordings were inaccurate judgments, but subjects conformed to the incorrect answer 33% of the time. |
| Muzafer Sherif - Social Theorist | Showed in his Robbers' cave experiment that win/lose game-type competition can trigger serious conflicts in groups, but that group conflict is most effectively overcome by the need for cooperative attention to a higher superordinate goal. Studied in-group |
| R.E. Petty & J.T. Cacippo - Social Theorists | Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion - Suggests that people who are very involved in an issue listen to the strength of the arguments in the issue rather than more superficial factors, such as the characteristics of the speaker. |
| James Stoner - Social Theorist | Group polarization - group discussion generally serves to strengthen the already dominant point of view. This explains the risky shift phenomena, or why groups will take greater risks than individuals. |
| Irving Janis - Social Theorist | Groupthink - Likely to occur in a group that has unquestioned beliefs, pressure to conform, invulnerability, censors, cohesiveness within, isolation from without, and a strong leader |
| Kenneth and Mamie Clark - Social Theorists | Conducted the famous Doll Preference Studies which factored into the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education case: demonstrated the negative effects that group segregation had on African-American children's self-esteem. |
| Richard Lazarus - Social Theorist | Studied stress and coping: differentiated between problem-focused coping - changing the stressor versus emotion-focused coping - changing our response to a stressor |
| J. Rodin & E. Langer - Social Theorists | Showed that nursing home residents who have plants to care for have better health and lower mortality rates. |
| Stuart Valins - Social Theorist | Studied environmental influences on behavior. Found that architecture matters. Students in long corridor dorms feel more stressed and withdrawn than students in suite-style dorms. |
| Leonard Berkowitz | Cognitive Neoassociation Model of aggressive behavior: which was created to help explain instances of aggression that the Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis could not account for |
| M. Rokeach - Social Theorist | Studied racial bias and the similarity of beliefs. People prefer to be with like-minded people more than like skinned people. Also, racial bias decreases as attitude similarity between people increases. |
| M. Fischbein & I. Ajzen - Social Theorist | Known for their Theory of Reasoned Action - people's behavior in a given situation is determined by their attitude about the situation and social norms |
| Hazel Markus - Social Theorist | Found that Eastern countries, in contrast to Western, value interdependence over independence. |
| Elaine Hatfield - Social Theorist | Two basic types of love are Passionate Love - intense longing for the union with another and a state of physiological arousal and Companionate Love - the affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply entwined |
| Paul Ekman - Social Theorist | Argued that humans have six basic emotions: Sadness, Happiness, Fear, Anger, Surprise, and Disgust |
| Harold Kelley - Social Theorist | Thought that the attributions we make about our actions or those of others are usually accurate. He said we base this on the consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus of the action. |
| Walter Dill Scott - IO Theorist | One of the first people to apply psychology principles to business, by employing psychological principles in advertising. Additionally, he was involved in helping the military to implement psychological testing to aid with personnel selection. |
| Henry Landsberger - IO Theorist | Coined the term Hawthorne effect - subjects improve or modify an aspect of their behavior being experimentally measured simply in response to the fact that they are being studied, not in response to any particular experimental manipulation. |
| Socrates - Greek Philosopher | The original philosophic mentor who pondered the abstract ideas of truth, beauty, and justice. |
| Plato - Greek Philosopher | Socrate's pupil, declared that the physical world was not all that could be known. He asserted the presence of universal forms and innate knowledge. |
| Aristotle - Greek Philosopher | Plato's pupil, recognized as the world's first professor. His studies were based on order and logic. Unlike Plato, he believed that truth would be found in the physical world. |
| Rene Descartes - Philosopher | Declared "I think, therefore I am." Focused on figuring out truths through reason and deduction. Pondered dualism or the mind body problem, which posits that the mind is a nonphysical substance that is separate from the body. |
| John Locke - Philosopher | Famous for asserting that man's mind is a tabula rasa or blank slate upon entering the world. Asserted that what we know and what we are comes from experience: knowledge is not innate. Founder of Empiricism |
| Thomas Hobbes - Philosopher | Asserted that humans and other animals were machines and that sense-perception was all that could be known. Empiricist. |
| Immanuel Kant - Philosopher | Countered Lock's claim by asserting that our minds were active, not passive. |
| Anton Mesmer (1734 - 1815) | Believes healing of people's ailments came from manipulation of people's bodily fluids. Thought that animal magnetism was responsible for his patient's recoveries. Technique of mesmerism was used by others under term of hypnotism. |
| Franz Joseph Gall (1758 - 1828) | Created pseudoscience of Phrenology - the idea that the nature of a person could be known by examining the shape and contours of the skull. Saw the brain as being the seat of the soul and certain features on the head were said to be indicators of particul |
| J. Spurzheim | Carried on Franz Joseph Gall's work in phrenology, despite proof of his theories being incorrect. |
| Sir Francis Galton (1822 - 1911) | First to use statistics in psychology, created the correlation coefficient. Wrote Hereditary Genius and used Darwin's principles to promote eugenics. Measured the sensory abilities of 10,000 people in his lab |
| Gustav Fechner (1807 - 1887) | Credited with the founding of experimental psychology because of his work Elements of Psychophysics. Carried out the first systematic psychology experiment to result in mathematical conclusions. Formulated Weber's law |
| Johannes Muller (1801 - 1858) - German Physiologist | Wrote Elements of Physiology. Postulated the existence of "specific nerve energies" |
| Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) - Historical figure in psychology | Founder of psychology: given this title because he founded the first official laboratory for psychology a the University of Leipzig in 1879 and began the first psychology journal in 1881. Wrote Principles of Physiological Psychology |
| Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903) - Historical figure in psychology | Wrote Principles of Psychology (1855) and became the father of the psychology of adaptation. Used principles from Lamarckian evolution, physiology, and associationism to understand people. |
| William James (1842 - 1910) - Historical figure in experimental psychology | Often called the father of experimental psychology. Combined the fields of physiology and philosophy into a new field. Wrote Principles of Psychology (1890) which inspired American psychology. Wrote about the mind's stream of consciousness. Functionalist. |
| Stanley Hall (1842 - 1924) - Historical figure in psychology | Student of William James and received America's first Ph.D. in psychology from Harvard. Coined the term adolescence, started the American Journal of Psychology and founded APA (1892). Father of developmental psychology |
| John Dewey (1859 - 1952) - Historical figure in psychology | Attempted to synthesize philosophy and psychology. Best known for his work critisizing the reflex arc - the neural pathway that mediates a reflexive action. Asserted that animals are constantly adapting to their environment rather than processing isolated |
| Edward Titchener (1867 - 1927) - Historical figure in psychology | Founder of structuralism - focus on the analysis of human consciousness. Lab assistants used introspection to objectively describe the discrete sensations and contents of their minds. |
| James Cattell (1860 - 1944) - Historical figure in psychology | American who studied with Hall, Galton, and Wundt. Opened psychology laboratories at the University of Pennsylvania and Columbia University |
| Dorthea Lynde Dix - Historical figure in psychology | Spearheaded the 19th century movement to provide better care for the mentally ill through hospitalization |
| Alfred Binet - Intelligence Theorist | Developed the concept of IQ and the first intelligence test (Binet Scale). Equation for intelligence (mental age x chronological age) x 100 |
| Lewis Terman - Intelligence Theorist | From Stanford University: developed the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale - the revised version of Alfred Binet's original test, used with children and is organized by age level. Famous for his studies with gifted children |
| John Horn & Raymond Cattell - Intelligence Theorist | Found that Fluid Intelligence (knowing how to do something) declines with old age, while Crystallized Intelligence (knowing a fact) does not. |
| Charles Spearmen - Intelligence Theorist | Believed there was a general "g" factor in human intelligence. Someone that is good at logic and reasoning will probably score well on both math and verbal sections of the SAT. Created factor analysis |
| Julian Rotter - Intelligence Theorist | Created the Internal-External Locus of Control Scale to determine whether a person feels responsible for the things that happen or that he has no control over the events in life. |
| Walter Mischel - Personality/Social Theorist | Extremely critical of personality trait-theory and of personality tests. He felt that situations (not traits) decide actions. |
| Anne Anastasi - Intelligence Theorist | Researched intelligence in relation to performance |
| Chris Argyris | Maturity-Immaturity theory - interaction of the work environment and the individual that leads to unmotivated work |
| Leon Kamin | Blocking : prior conditioning prevents conditioning to a second stimulus even when the two stimuli are presented simultaneously |
| Donald Broadbent | Selective Attention: acts as a filter between sensory stimuli and our processing systems. Information Processing Model of Cognition: a cognitive model of memory in which information must pass through discrete stages via the processes of attention, encodin |
| Robert Rosenthal | focus on nonverbal communication, self-fulfilling prophecies; Studies: Pygmalion Effect- effect of teacher's expectations on students can have a huge effect including IQ |
| Jacob L. Moreno | Introduced "group psychotherapy" and "Psychodrama" into counseling literature in the 1920's. |
| Frederick Herzberg | Theory of Motivation-Hygiene/Two Factor Theory of Job Satisfaction: Noted that there is a difference between just being satisfied and being motivated |
| Rensis Likert | linking pin: A person works in two different groups/levels of the company, resulting in management working to it full potential |
| Bibb Latané and John Darley | After Kitty Genovese studied diffusion of responsibility |
| Norman H. Anderson | Impression formation: created a weighted averaging model |
| Robert A. Rescorla | experimentally demonstrated the involvement of cognitive processes in classical conditioning |
| Two-process learning theory: concerns the interaction between classical and instrumental conditioning, asserts that Pavlovian conditioned emotional responses (CERs) can directly affect instrumental behavior | |
| Edwin Guthrie | One-Trial Learning: in the first instance of a stimulus situation a person makes a complete association. you will respond to the stimulus the same way that worked previously. The principle of learning was all or nothing in the first trial. The association |
| Max Wertheimer | Founder of Gestalt. Defined "Phi phenomenon" |
| Stanley Smith Stevens | Proposed Stevens' power law to replace Fechner's law concerning the relationship between the physical intensity of a stimulus and the perception of the subjective magnitude of the stimulus |
| Georg von Békésy | Traveling wave theory - frequency sounds maximally vibrate the basilar membrane near the beginning of the cochlea close to the oval window and low frequencies maximally vibrate near the tip of the cochlea |
| Wever and Bray | developed volley theory of pitch perception in response to criticism of the frequency theory of pitch perception |
| Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga | Studied effects of severing corpus callosum - |
| Split Brain studies | |
| Karl Hering | Opponent-process: theory of color vision stating that we perceive color in terms of paired opposites: red/green, yellow/blue, black/white |
| Hubel and Weisel | Created feature detection theory: 3 types of cells in the visual cortex, each sensitive to certain features of stimuli; simple (orientation); complex (movement); hypercomplex (shape) |
| Rumbaugh and Glasersfeld | Lana Project: Used a computer based system of visual symbols and taught them to chimps. |
| Nancy Bayley | developed the Bayley Scales of Infant Development. |
| Dollard and Miller | behaviorist theorists who attempted to study psychoanalytic concepts within a behaviorist framework. proposed frustration-agression model: People who are frustrated in efforts to achieve a highly desired goal will respond with a pattern of aggression towa |
| Jerome Kagan | Believed temperament had a biological basis and infants temperament was stable throughout life. did a cross cultural study on the relationship between intelligence and environmental stimulation |
| Melzach and Wall | gate of pain theory: there is a gating mechanism in the spinal cord that turns pain on and off |
| Howard Gardener | Multiple Intelligence Theory: we have many kinds of intelligence (musical, kinesthetic, verbal, interpersonal, etc) that are all independent of each other |
| Sir Charles Sherrington | First to inferr the existence of synapses. Mistakenly believes it was an electrical transfer even though it is a chemical reaction |
| Katherine Nelson | found that language begins to develop with the onset of active speech rather than the first year of only listening |
| Martin and Halverson | gender schematic processing theory: as soon as children are able to label themselves, they begin concentrating on behaviors associated with their gender and tend to ignore characteristics related to the opposite gender |
| Thomas and Chess | longitudinal study on childhood temperament; concluded differences are biologically based although they can be modulated by the child's environment; three distinct groups of infants: easy, difficult, and slow to warm up |
| Mavis Hetherington | reports that not all kids of divorce fare so badly, and that divorce can actually help children living in high-conflict homes such as those with domestic violence. Found divorce has less of an impact on younger children and an adjustment period of two yea |
| Four components of language | Phonology: language rules that govern how sounds are combined to create words. Categorical perception: the ability to differentiate sounds that do and dont have meaning. Syntax: the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a give |
| H.M | Individual who, after undergoing a bilateral temporal lobectomy to eliminate his seizures, experienced profound anterograde amnesia for the rest of his life although his working memory and procedural memory were intact |
| Long-Term memory | Inactive, permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory. Most Items are stored semantically (secondary/elaborative rehearsal). Retention measured by recall (essay), recognition (easiest - multiple choice), and savings. Separated into Procedural (How to |
| Types of memory tests: | Serial-Recall Learning: A list is learnt and recalled in order. Serial-Anticipation Learning: Subject is given an item and say what goes next after that item. Paired-Associate Learning: Pair an item with another item of the same meaning to help facilitate |
| Short-Term Memory | Ative memory storage system that allows for short-term retention (through primary/maintenance rehearsal) of smaller amount of info (magic number 7) before it's either transferred to long-term memory or forgotten (link between SM and LTM). Contains Working |
| Sensory Memory | The first of three memory stages, preserving brief sensory impressions of stimuli for around two seconds. Partiel Report: Sperling found subject could remember nine items. Iconic and Echoic memory. Forms connection between perception and memory. Cocktail- |
| Mistakes children make while acquiring a language | Overregulation: aka errors of growth, over-application of grammer rules, universal errors, working form some internalized rules. Overextension: generalizing names for things (anything furry is a dog) Telegraphic Speech: Excludes middle and ends of sentenc |
| Decay/Trace Theory of Memory | Memory fades if no rehearsal. Found to be too simplistic |
| Incidental Learning | learning that takes place without any intention to learn and often without the awareness that learning is actually occuring |
| Freud Psychosexual Stages: | Oral (birth to 1). Anal (1 to 3). Phallic (3 to 6) Oedipal complex, Electra complex, penis envy Latency (6 to 12) sublimation and identification. Genital (11 to adult) |
| Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages: | Growth is orderly, universal, and systematic: Trust vs. mistrust: (birth-1), trust environment. Autonomy vs shame and doubt: (1-3), competente and autonomy. Initiative vs. guilt: (3-6), purposeful, proactive, proud. Industry vs. inferiority: (6-12), confi |
| Lawrence Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development | 1) Pre-conventional: Kids make their decisions based on avoiding punishment and getting rewards 2) Conventional: Moral choices based on wanting approval from other, morals defined by authority figures 3) Post-conventional: Moral reasoning; based on greate |
| Jean Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development | 1. Sensorimotor: ages 0-2, object permanence, Goal oriented behavior: primary (motions with the body), secondary (objects in the environment), and tertiary (making interesting things last) reactions. 2. Preoperational: ages 2-7, centrism, egocentrism, irr |
| Lawrence Kohlberg's Gender Stages | Gender labeling: by age 2 or 3, children understand that they are either boys or girls and label themselves accordingly. Gender stability: age 3-4, awareness that sex is stable over time e.g. boys will become men. Less awareness that sex is stable over si |
| Jean-Jacques Rousseau | Believed people in their natural state were basically good and society was unnecessary and detrimental to their development, wrote the social contract. |
| Five Tactual Receptors: | 1. Meissner Corpuscles: Touch Receptors 2. Pacinian Corpuscles: detect sudden displacements or high-frequency vibrations on the skin. 3. Merkle Discs 4. Ruffini Endings: warmth 5. Free nerve endings: Pain and Temperature change |
| Logical Reasoning Errors | Atmospheric effect: When a conclusion is influenced by the way information is phrased. 2. Semantic Effect: Believing in a conclusion because of what you know to be correct regardless of the what logically follows form the information given 3. Confirmation |
| Structure of the eye | Cornea: Clear protective coating on the outer eye. Gathers and focuses incoming light Pupil: Contracts in light and expands in dim light Lens: Ciliary Muscles allow it to control the curvature of light to let in and can focus near or far objects on the re |
| Visual Pathway: | One optic nerves from each side of the brain goes to an eye. Half of the fibers (the nasal fibers) from each optic nerve crosses over at the Optic chasm. The other half of the fibers (the temporal fibers) go straight to the eyes. The visual information th |
| Pathway of light from receptors to the optic nerve: | Rods and Cones (receptor cells) then travels through the horizontal cells then to the bipolar neuron cells then to the amacrine cells, which leads to the ganglion cells which group together to form the optic nerve fibers |
| Brightness Perception | It is the subjective impression of the intensity of a stimulus unlike illumination: which is an objective measurement of how much light is falling on a surface. Two factors involved in impression: Dark adaptation: When entering a dark space the previous l |
| Color Perception | Related to the wavelength of light entering your eye. Human eye can see from about 400-800 nanometers. Trichromatic = retina and opponent process theory = lateral geniculate body = after images |
| Depth Perception | Cues: Interposition/overlap. Relative size: compare retinal size to actual size. Linear perspective. Texture gradient. Motion parallax: when observers move objects in stationary environment seem to move relative to distance from obserever. Binocular dispa |
| Perception of form | Minimum Principle/Pragnanz: Gestalt idea that experience will be organized as simple, meaningful, simple, and symmetrical whenever possible: Proximity. Similarity. Good continuation. Closure |
| Motion Perception Illusions | Apparent motion: aka Phi, two or more stationary lights flicker in scuccesion, tend to be percieved as a single moving light. Induced motion: a stationary point of light seems appears to move when the background moves. Autokinetic Effect: a stationary poi |
| Visual Constancies | Size constancy: Emmert's law: size constancy depends on apparent distance. Amers room and moon illusion. Shape constancy: Lightness Constancy: Color Constancy: |
| Visual Illusions | Muller-Lyer & Ponzo: Lines appear different sizes Wundt & Herring: The two horizontal lines are straight and parallel. Poggendorff: the diagonal line on bottom is the continuation of the line on top |
| Dimensions of sound | Objective: Frequency: the number of cycles per seconds. Measured in Hertz (Hz). Intensity: The amplitude of the sound wave. Measured in decibles. Subjective: Pitch: The subjective experience of the frequency of the wave. Loudness: The subjective experienc |
| Sound Wave Through the Ear | Outer: Pina, Travels through the Auditory canal, gets channeled to the Tympanic membrane, vibrations transmitted to Middel Ear: Ossicles: hammer/malleus, anvil/icus, stirrup/stapes, transmit vibrations to inner ear, the edge of the stirrup rests on the In |
| Frequency Theory | A theory suggesting that the basilar membrane of the ear vibrates as a whole and that the rate of vibration equals the frequency of the stimulus so the vibration rate is directly translated into the appropriate number of neural impulses per second. Best f |
| The Auditory Pathway | Auditory nerves projects to the superior olive, inferior colliculus, and the medial geniculate nucleus in the thalamus and finally to the temporal lobe |
| Pitch Perception | Place-Resonance Theory. Frequency Theory. Traveling Wave Theory |
| Taste Perception | Pupillae, taste receptors go to the taste center in the thalamus. |
| Smell Perception | Olfactory epithelium, smell receptors, in the upper nasal passage of the nose go to the olfactory bulb in the brain |
| Touch Perception | Two-point threshold: Depends on the density of nerves in that area of skin. Physiological Zero: Neutral perceived temperature. Gate theory of pain |
| Proprioception | General Term for our sense of bodily position. Two types: Vestibular Sense: sense of equilibrium-orientation and/or position in space; originates in inner ear-movement of fluid in the semicircular canals relays messages about speed and direction of body r |
| Types of Deafness | Nerve deafness: inner-ear deafness resulting from damage to the cochlea, hair cells, or auditory nerve. Conduction deafness: hearing loss due to problems with the bones of the middle ear |
| Psychophysics | the study of relationships between Distal Stimuli: the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and Proximal Stimuli: our psychological experience of them |
| Sensory Information Processing | 1. Reception: receptors react to physical energy. 2. Transduction: translation of physical energy into neural impulses/action potentials. 3. Energy is sent to various projection areas (brain areas that analyze the sensory input) along various neural pathw |
| Reflexes in Newborns | Moro: Reacts to Abrupt Movements Babinski: Infants toes automatically spread when soles of feet are stimulated. Plantar: Toes curl under to a finger-press against the ball of the foot. Grasping: Closes finger Rooting: Turn head toward stimuli. Sucking: Ey |
| Structure of the brain | Forebrain: Cerebral cortex: Complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes. Basal Ganglia: Coordinates movement. Limbic System: Emotion and memory. Thalamus: Sensory Relay Station. Hypothalamus: Hunger, thirst, and emotion. Midbrain: Inferior and |
| Hypothalamus | (four f's: feeding, fornicating, fighting, fleeing) It directs several homeostatic maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion (helps manage fight or flig |
| Basal Ganglia | Coordinates muscle movement from cortex to brain and spine. Helps make our movements smooth and steady. Parkinsons and Schizophrenia are related. |
| Limbic System: | Septum: Pleasure center of the brain. Lesions produce "sham rage". Amygdala: Plays a role in defensive and agressive behavior. Lesions lead to docility and hypersexual states. Hippocampus: Memory. Lesions produce anterograde amnesia (not being able to est |
| Cerebral Cortex | Frontal Lobe: Motor Cortex: sends out motor commands to the muscles. Prefrontal lobes: supervises and directs the operations of other brain regions: Broca's area: Speech production. Parietal Lobe: somatosensory cortex, Occipital Lobe: visual/striate corte |
| Action Potential in Axon | Resting Potential: slight negative charge (-70) Depolarization: (-50), Absolute refractory period Threshold: All-or-Nothing. Action Potential Spike: relative refractory period. Hyperpolarization: (-90), . Resting potential |
| Postsynaptic Potential in Dendrites | Once the neurotransmitter binds to the receptor site on the dendrite in generates a tiny electrical charge. Two types of graded potentials (vary in intensity): Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP): more likely a neuron will fire. Inhibitory postsynapt |
| Neurotransmitters | Acetylcholine: parasympathetic - voluntary muscle control central - Alzheimer's/memory loss. Adrenalin/epinephrine: "fight or flight". Norepinephrine:/nonadrenaline: Wakefulness and Alertness. Dopamine: smooth movement and steady posture. too much - schiz |
| Sleep Stages | Awake: Beta Waves - awake and alert, fast EEG. Alpha Waves - Awake and relaxed with eyes closed. Stage 1: Theta waves - lightly sleeping, EEG shows sleep spindles and K complexes. Stage 3: Delta Waves Stage 4: Delta Waves - EEG slowest and steepest spindl |
| Prenatal Development Stages | 1. Zygote: sperm fertilizes the egg 2. Germinal: fertilized egg travels down fallopian tube and attaches to the uterine wall 3. Embryonic: embryo increases by 2 million percent 4. Fetal: begins in third month with measurable electrical activity in the fet |
| Latent Inhibition | The phenomenon in classical conditioning whereby a familiar stimulus is more difficult to condition as a CS than an unfamiliar (novel) stimulus. |
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