Four main kinds of polysaccharides

starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin

storage form of sugar in animals

fats, waxes, phospholipids, steroids

amino acids, an amine group, carboxyl group and an R group

4 structures of a protein

primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

competitive inhibition is when

the inhibitor competes with the substrate for the same binding site

noncompetitive inhibition is when

the inhibitor temporarily binds to a site other than the binding site

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AP Biology Review

Question	Answer
Carbohydrates are made of	monosaccharides
Four main kinds of polysaccharides	starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin
Carbohydrates is a source of	quick energy
Starch is made of	amylase and amylopectin
Glycogen is	storage form of sugar in animals
a polymer is a	long chain
lipids	long term energy storage
carbon is linked to as many hydrogen as possible	saturated
double bond in the chain	unsaturated
four types of lipids	fats, waxes, phospholipids, steroids
3 fatty acids linked to an ester of glycerol	fats
longer fatty acids, higher melting point	waxes
fatty acid group is being replaced by a phosphate group, one side hydrophilic and one side hydrophobic	phospholipid
4 carbon ring structure	steroids
all enzymes are composed of	Protein
proteins are made of	amino acids, an amine group, carboxyl group and an R group
amino acides are connected by	peptide bonds
peptide bonds are formed through	dehydration synthesis
4 structures of a protein	primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
irreversible inhibition is when	the enzyme is denatured
reversible inhibition can be	competitive or noncompetive
competitive inhibition is when	the inhibitor competes with the substrate for the same binding site
noncompetitive inhibition is when	the inhibitor temporarily binds to a site other than the binding site
Coenzymes are	vitamins
cofactors are	minerals
passageway for small substances to diffuse into a cell	channel protein
protein in the cell membrane that recognizes other cells	recognition protein
protein in the cell membrane that is a site for hormones and other chemicals	receptor proteins
transfer of electrons in processes like photosynthesis and cell respiration	electron transfer
only in plants, type of cell junction	plasmodesmata
very small channels that allow various ions and other small substances to pass from one cell to another	gap junctions
seals around cells to prevent leakage	tight junctions
spot welds that hold cell together	desmosomes
synthesis of ribosomal RNA	Nucleolus
keeps DNA in and allows mRNA out, double membrane	nuclear membrane
assemble proteins	ribosomes
detoxifies the cell and converts food stuffs	smooth er
transports proteins to golgi bodies	rough er
store and package	golgi bodies
digest and remove worn out organelles	lysosome
produce cell's energy, double membrane	mitochondria
anchor spindle fibers in cell division	centrioles
provides cell with shape and support, involve din cell movement; composed of actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules	cytoskeleton
usually hold water	vacuoles
aid in movement or absorption	microvilli
in plants, store starch, oil, protein	leucoplasts
in plants, active in photosynthesis, double membrane	chloroplasts
plant cell walls are made of	cellulose
bacteria cell walls are made of	peptidoglycan
fungi cell wells are made of	chitin
prokaryotes have	cell walls and ribosomes
the purpose of cellular transport is to	maintain homeostasis
which type of transport does not require energy	passive
which type of transport does require energy to move from low to high against the concentration gradient	active
transporting from high concentrations to low	diffusion
high concentrations to low via carrier proteins	facilitated diffusion
high concentrations of water to low concentrations of water	osmosis
cell engulfs material	endocytosis
cell expels material	exocytosis
cellular respiration happens in the	mitochondria
the krebs cycle occurs in the	matrix
electron transport occurs in the	cristae
glycolysis occurs in the	cytoplasm
in glycolysis how many ATP are used	2
in glycolysis how many ATP are produced	4
the krebs cycle must have what	oxygen
what are the 2 types of anarobic respiration	alcoholic and lactate fermentation
noncyclic photophosphorylation and cyclic photophosphorylation are the two pathways involved in what	light reactions
reaction that occurs without light	calvin-benson
in this reaction carbon dioxide, NADPH, H ions, and ATP are converted into glucose, water, NADPH+, ADP and phosphate	calvin-benson reaction
allosteric enzyme oxygen and carbon dioxide compete for binding site	rubisco
if carbon dioxide is high more ________ binds to rubisco	CO2
if oxygen is high more _________ binds to rubsico	oxygen
in what type of respiration is no ATP or NADPH formed	photorespiration
carries out light independent reaction in bundle sheath cells	C4 Carbon Fixation
enzyme in bundle sheath cells, has high affinity for grabbing CO2	PEP Carboxylase
uses up more energy resulting in stunted growth, vital in environments with water loss	CAM pathway
in a CAM pathway, plants open stomates	at night
how many phases are there in cell division	6
interphases consists of	G1-organelle replication, S-DNA replication, G2-mototic app. are produced
the phase in which the nuclear membrane disappears and spindle fibers & centrioles become visible	prophase
chromosomes line up in what phase	metaphase
kinetichore proteins attach to spindle fibers in what phase	metaphase
chromosomes are pulled apart in which phase	anaphase
nuclear membrane reappears in which phase	telophase
cytokinesis in animals =	2 cells
cytokinesis in plants =	middle lamella (cell plate) formed
how many stages are there in meiosis	8
what does meiosis form	gametes
in what phase of meiosis do homologs attach to for tetrads, and crossing over occurs	prophase 1
in what phase of meiosis do tetrads line up and spindle fibers attach to centromere	metaphase 1
in what phase of meiosis are homologs pulled to each end	anaphase 1
in which phase of meiosis are nuclei reorganized and chromsomes decondense	telophase 1
what happens after telophase 1	meiotic interphase
in which phase of meiosis does the nuclear disappear for a 2nd time	phrophase 2
in which phase of meiosis do chromosomes line up and spindle fibers attach to kinetichore	metaphase 2
in which phase of meiosis do CHROMOSOMES separate	anaphase 2
in which phase of meiosis do centrioles stop replicating and cell remains in G1	telophase 2
gregor mendel performed and experiment using the cross-breeding of	pea plants
states that individuals pass information on as individual traits	principal of unit characters
states that some unit characters can mask the expression of others	principal of dominance
states that each unit character separates into a different sex cell	principal of segregation
states that genes segregate according to chance	principal of independent assortment
When an organism has the dominant phenotype, then its genotype can either be heterozygous or homozygous dominant. This type of problem requires a _______________ with a ________________ _________________ organism	test cross, homozygous recessive
occurs when one gene affects the phenotypic expression of a second gene	epistasis
occurs when a gene has more than one phenotypic expression	pleiotropy
there is more than one gene responsible for a trait in	polygenic inheritance
are on the same chromosome and cannot segregate independently since they are physically connected	linked genes
Any gene found on the X chromosome is referred to as a	sex-linked gene
One X chromosome does not uncoil into a chromatin. This chromosome is referred to as a Barr body.	x-inactivation
occurs when homologous chromosome pairs do no separate in meiosis	nondisjunction
where portions of chromosomes are deleted	deletion
where portions of chromosomes are duplicated	duplication
where portions are moved to another chromosome	translocation
where portions are arranged in reverse orientation on the same chromosome	inversion
griffith's experiment used as	transforming factor
chemical responsible for change in genetic makeup of an organism	transforming factor
DNA controlled the cell’s activities. Used radioactive sulfur and phosphorus. Concluded that DNA was the genetic material in who's experiment	Hershey-Case
Who determined is a polymer of nucleotides arranged in a double helix. Each nucleotide is composed of a phosphate group, sugar, and a base.	Watson and Crick
what are the 4 base pairs	adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine
adenine and guanine are	purines
cytosine and thymine are	pyrimidines
adenine pairs with	thymine
thymine pairs with	adenine
guanine pairs with	cytosine
cytosine pairs with	guanine
in RNA, adenine pairs with	uracil
in RNA, ribose is used instead of	deoxyribose
what are the building blocks of ribosomes	ribosomal RNA
binds to DNA at several sites	promotor proteins
attaches to promoter, breaks H bonds to open up double helix	helicase
reads exposed nucleotides and produces RNA primer	RNA polymerase
replicates DNA forming new strand in 5’ to 3’ direction	DNA polymerase
joins together fragments	DNA ligase
DNA broken up in many small fragments called	okazaki fragments
prevents kinks as the parent DNA is unzipped	topoisomerases
Radiation and various reactive chemicals can cause thymine dimers in what	mutations
transcription is	DNA to RNA
amino acids attached to appropriate tRNA molecules in transcription in the	amino acid activation stage
ribosome moves along the mRNA strand until it reaches termination code (AUG) in transcription in the	initiation stage
tRNA matches its anti-codon with the mRNA condon in transcription in the	elongation stage
AUG is reached, protein is released in what stage of transcription	termination
who came up with the operon theory	francois jacob & jacques monod
theory that shows how cells control the production of enzymes	operon theory
repressible and inducible are the 2 types of	operons
repressible operons	shut the operon down
inducible operons	turn the system on
DNA double helix is wrapped around small proteins called	histones
Nucleosomes are arranged into	looped domains
looped domains are condensed into	chromosomes
who determined species are different now than long ago	george-louis leclerc de buffon
who determined earth was created slowly and gradually	james hutton
who determined certain types of fossils appeared in the same strata	william smith
who determined species change with time, use & disuse, inheritance of acquired characteristics, natural transformation of species	jean baptiste lamark
who's theory states : 1. Like begets like with variations w/in offspring 2. More offspring are produced that can survive 3. Individuals in a population vary 4. Survival of the fittest.	darwins
how populations change from generation to generation	microevolution
patters of organisms over a long period of time	macroevolution
relationship between species and groups of species	phylogeny
2 copies of each chromosome in a cell	diploidy
mating with unrelated partners	outbreeding
encourages existece of more than one allele for a certain gene because of the survival benefits of both alleles	balanced polymorphism
has a better chance of survival than homozygous	heterozygote advantage
superior quality of offspring between two inbred strains of plants	Hybrid vigor
non-evolving population	Hardy-Weinberg
in hardy weinberg, no what is occuring?	natural selection
eliminates individuals with extreme or unusual traits	stabilizing selection
favors traits at one extreme of the range of traits	directional selection
occurs when environmental favor extreme traits	disruptive selection
selection of mate based on trait (phenotype)	sexual selection
form of selectio carried out by humans	artificial selection
population is divided by a geographic barrier	allopatric speciation
ew species formed without geographic isolation	sympatric speciatio
interbreed that share certain allele	balanced polymorphism
2 different species have offsprig that become different species	hybridization
sudden evolution of many species from a sigle ancestor	adaptive radiatio
prevents fertilization from occurring	pre-mating reproductive isolation
organisms do not encounter each other	habitat isolation
organisms mate at different times of the day	temporal isolation
organisms refuse to mate because of different courtship rituals	behavioral isolation
male and female genitalia are physically incompatible	mechanical isolation
male gametes cannot survive in the mating environment long enough to fertilize the female	gametic isolation
prevents the formation of fertile offspring	post-mating reproductive isolation
zygote fails to develop properly and dies	hybrid inviability
resulting offspring are unable to reproduce as adults	hybrid sterility
hybrids produce offspring that have limited reproductive capacity	hybrid breakdown
2 or more species evolved from a common ancestor	divergent
2 or more unrelated species that adopt similar adaptations	convergent
2 or more species that have continued to evolved similar characteristics after their divergence	parallel
evolution of species in response to the evolution of another	coevolution
kingdom consisting of all prokaryotes	monera
kingdom who's cell walls are made of peptidoglycan	monera
kingdom who uses flagella for movement	monera
make own organic cmpds	autotrophs
obtain energy by feeding on other substances	heterotrophs
obtain energy by feeding on decaying matter	saprophytes
harm is caused to the host	parasitism
one organism benefits while the other in unaffected	commensalism
both organisms benefit	mutualism
prokaryotes must have oxygen to live	obligate aerobes
cannot survive in presence of oxygen	obligate anaerobes
binary fission reproduction is considered a type of	asexual reproduction
conjugation is considered what type of reproduction	sexual
type of monera who's cell walls lack peptidoglycan and use lips and ribosomes	archaebacteria
spherical shaped eubacteria	cocci
rod shaped eubacteria	bacillus
spirals shaped eubacteria	spirillum
kingdom containing three sections: animal like ( protozoans ), plant like, and fungus like	protista
kingdom who is multicellular, parasitic or saprophytic, have cell walls made of chitin and use rhizoids to secrete enzymes	fungi
secrete enzymes and reabsorb the digested nutrients	rhizoids
kingdom that contains chlorophyll and cell walls made of cellulose	plantae
division of plantae kingdom that is primitive and lack vascular tissue and true roots, ex. moss	division bryophyta
division of plantae kingdom that is more advanced and contain vascular tissue	super division tracheophyta
division of plantae kingdom that reproduce by spores and grow from underground stems, ex. Ferns	division pterophyta
division of plantae kingdom that produce naked seeds in codes and soft wood	division coniferophyta
division of plantae kingdom that is the most advanced and produce flowers	division anthophyta
class in the division anthophyta that have seeds that contain one cotyledon, leaves with parallel verin, flower parts in multiples of 3, no cambium, and scattered vascular bundles in the stem	class monocotyldonae
class in the division anthophyta that have seeds that contain 2 cotyledons, leaves with netted veins, flower parts in multiples of 4&5, cambium and vascular bundles in a cylinder	class dicotyledonae
kingdom that is heterotrophic	animalia
kingdom that is multicellular with organs or tissues and mobile	animalia
plants are grouped according to	function
plants are protected by a	cuticle
a thin walled tissue in leaves that stores	parenchyma
a thick walled support tissue responsible to help with storage	collenchyma
thick support tissue that surrounds the veins of the leaves, stems and roots	schlerenchyma
made of dead cells, conducts water and dissolved minerals	xylem
dead seive tube cells and living companion cells that transport organic material	phloem
responsible for primary growth found at the tips of roots and stems	meristem
responsible for secondary growth, only found in dicots and conifers between the xylem and phloem	cambium
veins and bundle sheath cells are located in the	mesophyll
regulate the flow of carbon dioxide and oxygen into and out of the leaf, located in the lower epidermis	stomates
buds, bud scale scars, lenticels, and leaf scars make up the	external stem
pith, xylem, and phloem make up the	internal stem
adhesion mechanism of water	capillary action
water exerts pressure on water already in xylem pushing water upward	root pressure
water forms a chain from the leaves to the roots as water evaporates from the leaves in transpiration, the chain is drawn upward	cohesion-tension theory
sugar enters the sieve tube cells of the phloem, reducing the concentration of water inside	pressure-flow theory
sticky portion of the pistil that captures pollen	stigma
long and slender and supports stigma	style
composed of one or more ovules and responsible for housing the eggs in a plant	ovary
supports anther	filament
stores and produces pollen	anther
which phylum has no formal digestive, circulatory or nervous system	phylum porifera
most are salt water sponges	phylum porifera
which phylum uses poison or taste bad as protection	phylum porifera
which phylum lives in fresh and salt water	phylum cnidaria
which phylum have only tissues and simple nervous systems	phylum cnidaria
which phylum have stinging cells called nematocysts	phylum cnidaria
which phylum has a flattened, bilateral symmetrical body	phylum platyhelminthes
bodies covered with cilia and are free living	turbellaria
parasites with thick cuticle instead of cilia	trematoda
parasites with a thick cuticle	cestoda
which phylum has smooth round bodies and are pseudocoelomates	phylum nematoda
which phylum is segmented	phylum annelida
which phylum uses satae and parapodia for movement	phylum annelida
which phylum has distinct body zones	phylum mollusca
digestive, excretory and reproductive organs are considered	visceral mass
secrets the shell	mantle
which phylum uses a calcium carbonate shell, ink and toxins as protection	phylum mollusca
which phylum do marine organisms belong to	phylum echinodermata
which phylum has jointed appendages	phylum arthropoda
which phylum has and exoskeleton composed of 3 layers	phylum arthropoda
which phylum exhibits fast movement	phylum arthropoda
which phylum uses exoskeleton, pinchers, camouflage and poison glands for protection	phylum arthropoda
which phylum do fish belong to	phylum chordata
which phylum has a dorsal hollow nerve tube, notochord, pharyngeal gill slits and a closed circulatory system	phylum chordata
which phylum do amphibians belong to	phylum chordata
which phylum do reptiles belong to	phylum chordata
which phylum do birds belong to	phylum chordata
which phylum do mammals belong to	phylum chordata
system that divides into lateral roots that anchor the plant	taproot system
anchoring system that does not go deep down into soil	fibrous root system
which type of growth increase length of the plant	primary growth
which type of growth increase width of the plant	secondary growth
three main growth regions	zone of cell division, zone of elongation, zone of maturation
gives rise to secondary xylem/phloem; runs the entire length of the plant	vascular cambium
produces protective covering that replaces epidermis during secondary growth	cork cambium
leaves contain bundle sheath cells in what type of plants	c4 plants
assist in respiration in hot and dry regions	bundle sheath cells
structure, controlled by guard cells, that allows CO2 in, and H20 and O2 out	stomata
plant hormone that inhibits cell growth and helps close stomata	abscisic acid
plant hormone that helps stem elongation, gravitropism, and phototropism	auxin
plant hormone that promotes cell division, leaf enlargement, and slows that aging of leaves	cytokinins
plant hormone that ripens fruit and causes leaves to fall	ethylene
plant hormone that helps in stem elongation, induces growth in dormant seeds, buds and flowers	gibberellins
a plant's growth in response to gravity, auxin, gibberellins	gravitropism
plant's growth in response to light, auxin	phototropism
plant's growth in response to touch	thigmotropism
response of a plant to the change in length of days, REMEMBER FLORIGEN AND PHYTOCHROME	photoperiodism
driving force for H2O movement in plants	transpiration
driving force for sugar movement in plants	sugar
study of interaction between animals and their environments	behavioral ecology
study of animal behavior	ethology
programmed response to a stimulus in animals	fixed-action pattern
loss of responsiveness to unimportant stimuli or stimuli that provide no feedback in animals	habituation
innate behavior learned during critical period early in life in animals	imprinting
one stimulus is associated with another in animal learning	associative learning
trial and error way of learning in animals	operant conditioning
type of learning in animals where ability to reason through a problem the first time through with no prior experience	insight learning
type of learning in animals by watching someone else do it first	observational learning
change in speed of movement in response to a stimulus, organisms will move faster in bad environments and slower in good environments	kinesis
type of animal movement in which cyclic movement of animals over long distances according to the time of year	migration
reflex movement toward or away from a stimulus	taxis
conflict behavior over access to a resource, often a matter of which animal can mount the most threatening display and scare the other into submission	agonistic behavior
ranking of power among the members of a group; subject to change. since members of the group know the order, less energy is wasted in conflicts over food and resources	dominance behavior
defense of territory to keep others out	territoriality
action in which an organism helps another at its own expense	altruistic behavior
animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives hoping that the favor will be returned sometime in the future	reciprocal altriusm
feeding behavior of and individual. Animals have a search image that directs them to food.	foraging
natural selection favors those who choose foraging strategies that maximize diferential between costs and benefits. if the effort involved in obtaining food outweights the nutritive value of the food, forget about it	optimal foraging
the ability of individuals to pass their genes not only through the production of their own offspring, but also by providing aid to enable closely related individuals to produce offspring	inclusive fitness
statistic that represents the average proportion of genes two individuals have in common. The higher the value, the more likely they are to altruistically aid one another	coefficient of relatedness
communication through the use of chemical signals, such as pheromones	chemical communication
communication through the use of visual cues, such as the tail feather displays of peacocks	visual communication
communication through the use of sound, such as the chirping of frogs in the summer	auditory communication
communication through the use of touch, such as a handshake in humans	tactile
collection of individuals of the same species living in the same geographic area	population
collection of populations of species in a geographic area	community
community + environment	ecosystem
communities + ecosystem of planet	biosphere
living organisms of ecosystem	biotic components
nonliving players in ecosystem	abiotic components
animals live in packs spaced from each other (cattle)	clumped dispersion
animals are evenly spaced out across an area (birds on a wire)	uniform distribution
animals are randomly distributed across an area (trees in a forest)	random distribution
maximum growth rate for a population	biotic potential
maximum number of individuals that a population can sustain in a given environment	carrying capacity
factors that keep population size in check	limiting factors
food, waste, disease limiting factors	density-dependent
weather, natural disasters limiting factors	density-independent
J-shaped curve, unlimited growth	exponential growth
s-shaped curve, limited growth	logistic growth
constant size, low reproductive rate, extensive postnatal care (humans)	K-selected populations
rapid growth, J-curve style, little postnatal care, reproduce quickly, die quickly (bacteria)	R-selected populations
show survival rates for different aged members of a population	survivorship curves
type of survivorship curve, live long life, until age is reached where death rate increases rapidly (humans, large mammals)	type I
type of survivorship curve where there is constant death rate across the spectrum (lizards, hydra, small mammals)	type II
type of survivorship curve where there is a steep downward death rate for young individuals that flattens out at certain age (fish, oysters)	type III
one organism benefits at another's expense (tapeworms and humans)	parasitism
one organism benefits while the other is unaffected (cattle egrets and cattle)	commensalism
both organisms reap benefits from the interaction (acacia trees and ants, lichen)	mutualism
both species are harmed by the interaction (intraspecific vs. interspecific)	competition
one species, the predator, hunts the other, the prey	predation
coloring scheme that allows organism to blend into colors of environment	cryptic coloration
patterns that cause an animal to appear larger or more dangerous than it really is	deceptive markings
warning coloration adopted by animals that possess a chemical defense mechanism	aposematic coloration
animal that is harmless copies the appearance of an animal that is dangerous	batesian mimicry
two aposemetrically colored species have a similar coloration pattern	mullerian mimicry
occurs in area devoid of life that contains no soil	primary succession
come in, add nutrients, and are replaced by future species, which attract animals to the area, thus adding more nutrients	pioneer species
pioneer species are constantly changing until the ___________________ ___________ is reached and a steady-state equilibrium is achieved	climax community
occurs in area that once had stable life but was disturbed by major force (fire)	secondary succession
driest land biome	desert
lengthy cold, wet winters; lots of conifers	taiga
most fertile soil of all	temperate grassland
permafrost, cold winters, short shrubs	tundra
grasslands, home to herbivores	savanna
cold winters/ warm summers	deciduous
greatest diversity of species	tropical forest
freshwater and marine biomes of earth	water biomes
hierarchy of energy levels on a plant, energy level decreases from bottom to top	trophic levels

Created by: triciaekas

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