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Ancient Philosophy
Zeno-Socrates
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What was Zeno about? | He further refined the logical techniques of Parmenides (changeless unity, and "the one"). Saw time as infinitely divisible. Critiqued Parmenides in the concept of one or many. |
| What is Leucippus and Democritus about? | They saw atoms in the void as the answer to everything. Atoms are things that cannot be divided. There are an infinite number of uncuttable imperceptible atoms, or genuine beings, moving in the void |
| What is Protagoras about? | The world is as you think it is. Subjectivism. |
| What is Gorgias about? | He makes a complete separation between thinking and reality. |
| What is Antiphon about? | He was interested in law and nature. He saw human conventions often being against Natures convention. Thought people should act naturally when there are no witnesses. |
| What is Critias about? | He was also interested in law and nature. He saw the human convention of god to be good so people were good when no one is watching, also law to be good. |
| What is the Apology about? | He is accused of corrupting the youth, and not acknowledging the cities gods. He offers many paradox's in his accusations. |
| War is the father of all and king of all, and some he shows as gods, others as humans; some he makes slaves, others free. | Heraclitus |
| It is necessary to know that war is common and justice is strife and that all things happen in accordance with strife and necessity. | Heraclitus |
| The road up and the road down are one and the same. | Heraclitus |
| It is not possible to step twice in the same river....It scatters and again comes together, and approaches and recedes. | Heraclitus |
| For this reason it is necessary to follow what is common. But although the logos is common, most people live as if they had their own private understanding. | Heraclitus |
| That which is there to be spoken and thought of must be. For it is possible for it to be, but not possible for nothing to be.... | Parmenides |
| ....But nevertheless you will learn these too- that the things that appear must genuinely be, being always, indeed, all things. | Parmenides |
| *'s argument about motion which present difficulties for those who try to solve them are four. First is the argument which says that there is no motion because that which is moving must reach the mid-point before the end. | Zeno |
| If there are many, they must be just as many as they are and neither more nor less than that. But of they are as many as they are, they would be limited. If there are many, things that are are unlimited. For there are always others between the things... | Zeno |
| By convention, sweet; by convention, bitter; by convention, hot; by convention, cold; by convention, color; but in reality, atoms and void. | Leucippus and Democritus |
| A person must know by this rule that he is seperated from reality. | Leucippus and Democritus |
| A human being is the measure of all things- of things that are, that they are, and of things that are not, that they are not. | Protagoras |
| There are two opposing arguments (logoi) concerning everything. | Protagoras |
| To make the weaker argument (logos) the stronger. | Protagoras |
| More people are good by practice than by nature | Critias |
| Let these things be believed as resembling the truth. | Xenophanes |
| No man has seen nor will anyone know the truth about the gods and all the things I speak of. For even if a person should in fact say what is absolutely the case, nevertheless he himself does not know, but belief is fashioned over all things. | Xenophanes |
| All of him sees, all of him thinks, all of him hears. | Xenophanes |
| Ethiopians say that their gods are flat-nosed and dark, Thracians that theirs are blue-eyed and red-haired. | Xenophanes |
| They supposed the elements of numbers to be the elements of all existing things. | Pythagoreans |
| Some declare that it [the soul] is mixed in the whole [universe], and perhaps this is why * thought all things are full of gods. | Thales |
| Just as our soul, being air, holds us together and controls us, so do breath and air surround the whole cosmos. | Anaximenes |
| First he declares that the soul is immortal; then that it changes into other kinds of animals; in addition that things that happen recur at certain intervals, and nothing is absolutely new; and that all things that come to be alive must be thought akin. | Pythagoreans |
| Mortals believe that the gods are born and have human clothing, voice and form. | Xenophanes |
| He always remains in the same place, moving not at all, nor is it fitting for him to go to different places at different times. | Xenophanes |
| If god had no created yellow honey, they would say that figs are far sweeter. | Xenophanes |
| This logos holds always but humans always prove unable to understand it, both before hearing it and when they have first heard it....But other people fail to notice what they do when awake, just as they forget what they do while asleep. | Heraclitus |
| [* judged human opinions to be] children's playthings. | Heraclitus |
| A fool is excited by every word (logos). | Heraclitus |
| Eyes and ears are bad witnesses to people if they have barbarian souls. | Heraclitus |
| Thinking is common to all. | Heraclitus |
| I searched myself | Heraclitus |
| If all things were smoke, nostrils would distinguish them. | Heraclitus |
| An unapparent connection (harmonia) is stronger than an apparent one. | Heraclitus |
| Things taken together are whole and not whole, | Heraclitus |
| Those who speak with understanding must rely firmly on what is common to all as a city must rely on law [or, its law] and much more firmly. For all human laws are nourished by one law, the divine law; for it has as much power as it wishes and is... | Heraclitus |
| The most beautiful arrangement is a pile of things poured out at random. | Heraclitus |
| Corpses are more fit to be thrown out than dung. | Heraclitus |
| The soul has a self-increasing logos. | Heraclitus |
| The people must fight for the law as for the city wall. | Heraclitus |
| ...but nevertheless you will learn these too- that the things that appear must genuinely be, being always, indeed, all things. | Parmenides |
| ...the other, that it is not and that it is necessary for it not to be, this I point out to you to be a path completely unlearnable, for neither may you know that which is not nor may you declare it. | Parmenides |
| ...For the same thing is for thinking and for being. | Parmenides |
| That which is there to be spoken and thought of must be. For it is possible for it to be, but not possible for nothing to be. I bid you consider this. | Parmenides |
| * stated that if anyone could make clear to him what the one is, he would be able to speak of existing things. | Zeno |
| The second is the one called "Achilles." This is to the effect that the slowest as it runs will never be caught by the quickest... | Zeno |
| If place exists, where is it? For everything that exists is in a place. Therefore, place is in a place. This goes on for infinity. Therefore, place does not exist. | Zeno |
| No thing happens at random but all things as a result of a reason by necessity. | Leucippus and Democritus |
| * leaves aside purpose, but refers all things which nature employs to necessity. | Democritus |
| There is no more reason for the thing to be than the nothing | Leucippus and Democritus |
| * said that their primary bodies, the atoms, are always moving in the unlimited void by compulsion. | Leucippus and Democritus |
| None the less he is found condemning them [the senses]. For he says, 'We in fact understand nothing exactly [or, exact], but what changes according to the disposition both of the body and of the things that enter it and offer resistance to it." | Leucippus and Democritus |
| There are two kinds of judgement, one legitimate and the other bastard. All the following belong to the bastard:sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch. The other is legitimate and separated from this...in the direction of smallness...towards what is fine | Leucippus and Democritus |
| A person must know by this rule that he is separated from reality. | Leucippus and Democritus |
| In reality we know nothing about anything, but for each person opinion is a reshaping [of the soul atoms by the atoms entering from without]. | Leucippus and Democritus |
| Wretched mind, after taking your evidence from us do you throw us down? Throwing us down is a fall for you! | Leucippus and Democritus |
| Cheerfulness arises in people through moderation of enjoyment and due proportion in life. Deficiencies and excesses tend to change suddenly and give rise to large movements in the soul. Souls which undergo motions involving large intervals are neither... | Leucippus and Democritus |
| Accept nothing pleasant unless it is beneficial. | Leucippus and Democritus |
| To all humans the same thing is good and true, but different people find different things pleasant. | Leucippus and Democritus |
| To make the weaker argument (logos) the stronger. | Protagoras |
| There is no more reason for the thing to be than the nothing | Leucippus and Democritus |
| * said that their primary bodies, the atoms, are always moving in the unlimited void by compulsion. | Leucippus and Democritus |
| None the less he is found condemning them [the senses]. For he says, 'We in fact understand nothing exactly [or, exact], but what changes according to the disposition both of the body and of the things that enter it and offer resistance to it." | Leucippus and Democritus |
| There are two kinds of judgement, one legitimate and the other bastard. All the following belong to the bastard:sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch. The other is legitimate and separated from this...in the direction of smallness...towards what is fine | Leucippus and Democritus |
| A person must know by this rule that he is separated from reality. | Leucippus and Democritus |
| In reality we know nothing about anything, but for each person opinion is a reshaping [of the soul atoms by the atoms entering from without]. | Leucippus and Democritus |
| Wretched mind, after taking your evidence from us do you throw us down? Throwing us down is a fall for you! | Leucippus and Democritus |
| Cheerfulness arises in people through moderation of enjoyment and due proportion in life. Deficiencies and excesses tend to change suddenly and give rise to large movements in the soul. Souls which undergo motions involving large intervals are neither... | Leucippus and Democritus |
| Accept nothing pleasant unless it is beneficial. | Leucippus and Democritus |
| To all humans the same thing is good and true, but different people find different things pleasant. | Leucippus and Democritus |
| To make the weaker argument (logos) the stronger. | Protagoras |
| Concerning the gods I am unable to know either that they are or that they are not, or what their appearance is like. For many are the things that hinder knowledge: the obscurity of the matter and the shortness of human life. | Protagoras |
| Education is not implanted in the soul unless one reaches a greater depth. | Protagoras |
| [* said that tragedy creates a deception in which] the deceiver is more just than the nondeceiver and the deceived is wiser than the undeceived. | Gorgias |
| If someone were to bury a bed and the rotting wood came to life, it would become not a bed, but a tree. | Antiphon |
| More [people] are good by practice than by nature. | Critias |
| ...And then, I think, humans established Laws as punishers, so that justice would be the mighty ruler of all equally and would have violence as its slave, and anyone who did wrong would be punished. | Critias |
| Homer and Hesiod have ascribed to the gods all deeds which among men are a reproach and a disgrace: thieving, adultery, and deceiving one another. | Xenophanes |
| If oxen and horses and lions had hands and were able to draw their hands and do the same things as men, horses would draw the shapes of gods to look like horses and oxen to look like oxen, and each would make the gods' bodies have the same shape as they.. | Xenophanes |
| * used to say that those who say that the gods are born are just as impious as those who say that they die, since in both ways it follows that there is a time when the gods do not exist. | Xenophanes |
| God is one, greatest among gods and men, not at all like mortals in body or thought. | Xenophanes |
| By no means did the gods reveal all things to mortals from the beginning, but in time, by searching, they discover better. | Xenophanes |
| * declare that the sea is salty because many mixtures flow together in it...He says that these things occurred when all things were covered with mud long ago and the impressions were dried in the mud. All humans are destroyed when the earth is carried... | Xenophanes |
| All things that come into being and grow are earth and water. | Xenophanes |
| People are deceived about the knowledge of obvious things, like Homer who was wiser than all the Greeks. For children who were killing lice deceived him by saying, "All we saw and caught we have left behind, but all we neither saw nor caught we bring | Heraclitus |
| Of all those whose accounts (logoi) I have heard, no one reaches the point of recognizing that that which is wise is set apart from all. | Heraclitus |
| Much learning ("polymathy") does not teach insight. Otherwise it would have taught Hesoid and Pythagoras, and moreover Xenophanes and Hecataeus. | Heraclitus |
| Pythagoras the son of Mnesarchus practiced inquiry more than all other men, and making a selection of these writings constructed his own wisdom, polymathy, evil trickery. | Heraclitus |
| * said that Homer deserved to be expelled from the contests and flogged, and Archilochus likewise. | Heraclitus |
| Uncomprehending when they have heard, they are like the deaf. The saying describes them: though present they are absent. | Heraclitus |
| One ought not to act and speak like people asleep. | Heraclitus |
| For the waking there is one common world, but when asleep each person turns away to a private one. | Heraclitus |
| A man in the night kindles a light for himself when his sight is extinguished; living he touches the dead when asleep, when awake he touches the sleeper. | Heraclitus |
| What we see when awake is death, what we see asleep is sleep. | Heraclitus |
| The wise is one alone; it is unwilling and willing to be called by the name of Zeus. | Heraclitus |
| Nature loves to hide. | Heraclitus |
| The Lord whose oracle is at Delphi neither speaks nor conceals, but gives a sign. | Heraclitus |
| Listening not to me but to the logos it is wise to agree that all things are one. | Heraclitus |
| They do not understand how, though at variance with itself, it agrees with itself. It is a backwards-turning attunement like that of the bow and lyre. | Heraclitus |
| Most men's teacher is Hesiod. They are sure he knew most things- a man who could not recognize day and night; for they are one. | Heraclitus |
| The cosmos, the same for all, none of the gods nor of humans has made, but it was always and is and shall be: an ever-living fire being kindled in measures and being extinguished in measures. | Heraclitus |
| All things are an exchange for fire and fire for all things, as goods for gold and gold for goods. | Heraclitus |
| God is day and night, winter and summer, war and peace, satiety and hunger, but changes the way | Heraclitus |
| You would not discover the limits of the soul although you travelled every road: it has so deep a logos. | Heraclitus |
| There are gates of the roads of Night and Day, and a lintel and a stone threshold contain them. | Parmenides |
| They made a gaping gap of the doors when they opened them, swinging in turn in their sockets the bronze posts fastened with bolts and rivets. | Parmenides |
| ...to travel this road (for indeed it is far from the beaten path of humans), but Right and Justice. There is need for you to learn all things- both the unshaken heart of well persuasive Truth and the opinions of mortals, in which there is no true | Parmenides |
| ...that it is not and that it is necessary for it not to be, this I point out to you to be a path completely unlearnable, for neither may you know that which is not (for it is not to to be accomplished) nor may you declare it. | Parmenides |
| Nor was it ever nor will it be, since it is now, all together one continuous. For what birth will you seek for it? How and from where did it grow? I will not permit you to say or to think from what is not; for it is not to be thought that it is not. | Parmenides |
| Thus it must either fully be or not. Nor will the force of conviction ever permit anything to come to be from what is not beside it. For this reason, Justice has permitted it neither to come to be nor perish, relaxing her shackles, but holds fast. | Parmenides |
| But the decision about these matters lies in this: it is or it is not. | Parmenides |
| Nor is it divided, since it all is alike; nor is it any more in any way, which would keep it from holding together, or any less, but it is all full of what is. | Parmenides |
| Therefore, it is all continuous, for what draws near to what is. But unchanging in the limits of great bonds, it is without start or finish, since coming to be and destruction were banished far away and true conviction drove them off. | Parmenides |
| The third argument is the one just stated, that the arrow is stopped while it is moving. This follows from assuming that time is composed of "nows." If this is not conceded, the deduction will not go through. | Zeno |
| The fourth argument is about the equal bodies moving in a stadium past equal bodies in the opposite direction, the one group moving from the end of the stadium, the other from the middle, at equal speed. He claims that half the time is equal to the double | Zeno |
| * declare the full and the empty [void] to be the elements, calling the former "what is" and the other "what is not." Of these the one, "what is," is full and solid, the other is empty [void] and rare...Differences are three: shape, arrangement, position | Leucippus and Democritus |
| They declare that their nature is one, as if each were a separate piece of gold. | Leucippus and Democritus |
| Plato and * supposed that only intelligible things are true; * | Leucippus and Democritus |
| ...These problems result from supposing that any body whatever of any size is everywhere divisible...and so, since magnitudes cannot be composed of contacts or points, it is necessary for there to be indivisible bodies and magnitudes. | Leucippus and Democritus |
| ...Justice is a matter of transgressing what the laws prescribe in whatever city you are a citizen of. A person would make most advantage of justice for himself if he treated the laws as important in the presence of witnesses, and treated the decrees... | Antiphon |
| Compare the role of justice/injustice in the philosophies of Heraclitus and Anaximander. | Heraclitus saw justice as the natural conflict that arises from necessity, while Anaximander saw injustice as the natural effect of the penalty and retribution. Anaximander was looking for a better condition, looking for the retribution. |
| Compare the role of opposites in the philosophies of Anaximander and Anaximenes. | Anaximander saw opposites in a cycle of penalty and retribution, while Anaximenes saw them not as opposed but as indifferent states in the continuum. |
| How did Democritus meet Parmenides challenge? | Democritus gave genuine being to atoms. |
| How is Democritus a skeptic? | He is considered a skeptic, because his state of nature consists of infinite unperceivable atoms. |
| How is Xenophanes a skeptic? | Xenophanes saw that truth could only be fashioned over time in being less anthropomorphic, a difficult task as we must find this truth somehow through our senses. |
| Heraclitus and Parmenides are both heirs of Anaximander. | They all saw unity in opposites. |
| compare the relation of being, thinking, and speaking in the philosophies of Parmenides and Gorgias. | Gorgias ironically refutes Parmenides being for existence philosophy with the same argument for their being nothing that exists. |
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