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Digestive System
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Esophagus | A muscular tube that uses wave-like muscle movements called peristalsis to push food down into the stomach. |
| Small Intestine: | A long tube where most chemical digestion happens and tiny finger-like structures (villi) absorb nutrients into the blood. |
| Large Intestine (Colon): | Absorbs water and minerals from leftover waste, turning it into solid stool. |
| Rectum and Anus | The rectum stores stool until it leaves the body through the anus during a bowel movement. |
| Gallbladder | Stores extra bile produced by the liver and releases it into the small intestine. |
| Liver: | Produces bile to help break down fats and filters toxins from the blood. |
| Pancreas: | Makes important digestive enzymes that break down proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, and releases them into the small intestine. |
| Mouth (Oral Cavity): | Receives food, where mechanical breakdown (chewing by teeth) and chemical digestion (salivary enzymes) begin. |
| Pharynx (Throat): | Acts as a passageway that directs chewed food from the mouth into the esophagus. |
| Anus: | The final opening at the end of the alimentary tract where solid waste leaves the body. |
| Teeth and Tongue: | Located in the mouth; teeth physically grind food, and the tongue helps mix food with saliva and push it down the throat. |
| Salivary Glands | Produce saliva, which moistens food and contains enzymes (like amylase) to start breaking down carbohydrates. |
| Mucosa (Innermost Layer) (structure) | Structure: Composed of an inner epithelial lining, a connective tissue layer called the lamina propria, and a thin layer of smooth muscle called the muscularis mucosae. |
| Mucosa (Innermost Layer) (Function) | Function: Absorbs nutrients, secretes mucus and digestive enzymes, and protects underlying tissues. |
| Submucosa | Structure: Made of dense connective tissue containing blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerve plexuses. Function: Supports the mucosa and supplies the surrounding tissues with nutrients and blood. |
| Muscularis (Muscular Layer) | Structure: Typically formed by smooth muscle arranged in an inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer. Function: Generates peristalsis (wave-like muscle contractions) to push food through the digestive tract. |
| Serosa (Outermost Layer) (structure) | Structure: Composed of a thin layer of connective tissue and simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium). |
| Serosa (Outermost Layer) (function) | Function: Protects the outer surface and lubricates organs so they move smoothly against each other. (Note: In areas above the diaphragm or outside the peritoneal cavity, this outer layer is called the adventitia.) |
| Structure of the Lining (Small Intestine) | Epithelium, Folds and Projections, Crypts of Lieberkühn |
| Epithelium: ( small intestine) | Covered by a single layer of simple columnar epithelial cells (mainly enterocytes) that feature microscopic microvilli (the brush border) |
| Folds and Projections: | Includes large circular folds (plicae circulares), villi, and microvilli, which increase the surface area enormously |
| Crypts of Lieberkühn: ( small intestine) | Pockets or glands located at the base of the villi that secrete juices and house stem cells |
| Special Type of Cells (small intestine) | Enterocytes, Goblet cells, Paneth cells,Enteroendocrine cells, Stem cells |
| Enterocytes: ( small intestine) | Absorptive cells that take in nutrients like sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids. |
| Goblet cells: (small intestine) | Produce mucus to protect and lubricate the lining. |
| Paneth cells: | Secrete antimicrobial peptides to defend against microbes. |
| Enteroendocrine cells: | Release regulatory hormones into the digestive tract. |
| Stem cells: | Continuously divide to completely renew the epithelial lining every few days |
| Large intestine: Structure of the Lining | Simple columnar epithelium ,Goblet cells, Crypts of Lieberkühn, Absorptive cells (enterocytes) ,Lack of villi |
| Simple columnar epithelium: | A single layer of tall, column-like cells that covers the surface. |
| Goblet cells: ( large intestine) | Numerous mucus-producing cells embedded in the epithelium that secrete mucus to lubricate waste. |
| Crypts of Lieberkühn: ( large intestine) | Deep, straight tubular glands that absorb water and electrolytes. |
| Absorptive cells (enterocytes) ( large intestine) | Cells with microvilli that take in water and salts from digested food. |
| Lack of villi: | Unlike the small intestine, the large intestine does not have finger-like projections called villi on its surface |
| Mechanical Digestion ( what it does and how it helps) | What it does: Physically tears, chews, cuts, and grinds food into smaller sizes without changing its chemical makeup. How it helps: It creates more surface area so that chemical juices can reach the food faster. |
| Mechanical Digestion ( Where it happens and examples) | Where it happens: Mostly in the mouth (chewing) and the stomach (churning muscles), plus rhythmic squeezing in the intestines called segmentation. Examples: Chewing with teeth and the rolling/squeezing motions of the stomach wall |
| Chemical Digestion ( what it does ) | What it does: Uses special liquids, acids, and proteins called enzymes to break chemical bonds, turning complex food into simple molecules. |
| Chemical Digestion ( how it helps) | .How it helps: It turns large, unabsorbable food parts into tiny, water-soluble units (like sugars and amino acids) that can enter your blood. |
| Chemical Digestion ( Where it happens and examples) | Where it happens: Starts in the mouth (saliva), continues in the stomach (acid), and finishes mostly in the small intestine (with help from the liver and pancreas). Examples: Saliva breaking down starches, and stomach acid breaking down proteins. |
| Fact you should know: | Chemical digestion uses water and enzymes via hydrolysis to break large food polymers into small, absorbable monomer units |
| Carbohydrate Digestion ( Mouth and Small intestine ( duodenum) | Mouth: Salivary amylase breaks starches down into shorter oligosaccharides and maltose. Stomach acid then inactivates it. Small Intestine (Duodenum): Pancreatic amylase continues starch breakdown into disaccharides and oligosaccharides. |
| Carbohydrate Digestion ( Brush Border) | Brush Border (Small Intestine): Membrane-bound enzymes (maltase, sucrase, lactase) convert disaccharides into single monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) for absorption |
| Protein Digestion ( stomach and Small intestine ( duodenum) | Stomach: Hydrochloric acid denatures proteins, and pepsin cuts them into smaller polypeptides. Small Intestine (Duodenum): Pancreatic proteases (trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase) split polypeptides into smaller peptides. |
| Protein Digestion ( Brush Border) | Brush Border (Small Intestine): Aminopeptidases and dipeptidases reduce the peptides into free amino acids, dipeptides, and tripeptides ready for transport into blood |
| Fat (Lipid) Digestion ( Mouth & Stomach and Small intetsine ( Emulsification) | Mouth & Stomach: Minimal initial breakdown via lingual and gastric lipases. Small Intestine: Liver-secreted bile salts emulsify large fat globules into tiny droplets, vastly increasing surface area. |
| Fat (Lipid) Digestion ( Small Intestine ( chemical digestion) | Small Intestine: Pancreatic lipase digests triglycerides into free fatty acids and monoglycerides. These cluster with bile salts into micelles to transport them to the intestinal lining for absorption |
| Effects of Obesity on the Digestive System | Acid Reflux and GERD, Gallstones, Fatty Liver Disease, and Slower Motility |
| Acidlux disease. Reflux and GERD: | Excess weight—especially around the abdomen—creates pressure on the stomach, pushing stomach acid back up into the esophagus and causing Gastroesophageal reflux disease. |
| Gallstones: | Hormonal changes and metabolic shifts linked to obesity alter bile composition, increasing the likelihood that deposits will form in the gallbladder. |
| Fatty Liver Disease | Excess fat storage can lead to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, which may cause chronic liver damage or inflammation. |
| Slower Motility: | Obesity and a higher body weight are linked to slower digestion, bloating, and a higher prevalence of Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) symptoms. |
| Effects of Exercise on the Digestive System | Better Motility, Reduced Bloating, Improved Microbiome, and Lower Gallstone Risk |
| Better Motility: | Physical activity like walking, running, or swimming promotes peristalsis—the muscle contractions that push food smoothly through your intestines—helping to relieve or prevent constipation |
| Reduced Bloating: | Moving your body helps clear trapped gas and lowers the chance of uncomfortable abdominal distension. |
| Improved Microbiome: | Regular Exercise and gastrointestinal function and disease: an evidence supports a diverse population of helpful gut bacteria, which protects the intestinal barrier and reduces inflammation. |
| Lower Gallstone Risk: | Consistent activity helps regulate insulin and triglyceride levels, preventing bile from sitting still in the gallbladder. |
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