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Bio midterm
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is science? | A collection of knowledge and evidence about a subject *Must be observable and measurable *Constantly growing and evolving |
| What can science not do? | Distinguish or quantify beauty, determine the presence or absence of the supernatural, give direction morally or ethically, or answer all questions |
| What is a hypothesis? | An answer to the question; testable and falsifiable; supported or not supported but never "proven" |
| What is a scientific law? | It is used to describe how nature works; more common in physical science |
| What is scientific theory? | Generally accepted, thoroughly tested and confirmed explanation for a set of observations or phenomena. (Upheld by multiple supported hypotheses |
| List the steps in the scientific method | 1. Observation/problem 2. Question 3. Hypothesis 4. Test/experiment with variables and controls 5. Analyze/conclude 6. Report results |
| What is a primary source of research? | A peer-reviewed scientific paper; published in a scientific journal/magazine |
| What is a secondary source? | Summary of relevant research Ex) NatGeo, Smithsonian |
| What are some examples of natural sciences? | Bio, chem, physics, geology, astronomy, and math |
| What is biology? | The study of live, from molecules to biomes to the biosphere |
| What are the properties of life? | Order Made of cells Respond to environment Experience homeostasis Grow, develop, reproduce Adapt/evolve |
| What are the levels of organization/order? | Atoms Molecules Macromolecules |
| What are the types of macromolecules? | Lipids Carbohydrates Proteins Nucleic acids |
| Describe cells | The fundamental structural units of an organism that contain DNA that encodes genetic info, and they are the smallest living organism that can carry out the processes of life |
| What is a prokaryote? | Single celled, one circular chromosome, no membrane-bound organelles |
| What is a eukaryote? | Single and multicellular, many linear chromosomes, membrane-bound organelles |
| Name an example of response to environment | Taking your hand away from a hot stove |
| Name an example of experiencing homeostasis | Body temp maintaining a 98* body temp |
| Name an example of growing, developing, and reproducing | Plant growing from seed to tree |
| Name an example of processing energy | Moving from living sphere to non-living sphere |
| Name an example of adapting/evolving | Changes within organisms over time to change for their environment |
| List the big six that are elements of life, as well as some trace amounts of iron (CHONPS) | Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Phosphorous Sulfur Calcium, potassium, iron, sodium |
| Describe atoms | Smallest and simplest functional unit of an element *Made of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, electrons) *Bond by sharing or transferring electrons |
| What's a molecule? | Two or more atoms in the covalent bond Ex) water |
| What's the van der Waals interaction? | Very weak temporary attraction between nonpolar molecules |
| What's a hydrogen bond? | Hydrogen on one molecule interacts with O or N on another; important in biological systems |
| What's an ionic bond? | When one atom gains and another loses electrons, they form ions that make an ionic bond |
| What are the characteristics of water? | Less dense as a solid Polar High heat capacity/heat of vaporization Cohesive and adhesive |
| Describe carbon | Can form 4 covalent bonds that are strong and stable Can form double or triple bonds C-C bonds are sensitive to UV light |
| What are macromolecules? And the 4 classes? | Organic compounds that are the building blocks of all life Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids |
| Tell me about carbohydrates | Sugar Simple carbs (glucose) and complex (starch, cellulose) Made of C,H,O Short-term energy, structure, signaling Found in fruits, veggies, nuts, seeds, grains, and dairy Fiber is a carb Can be stored as fat |
| Too many carbs increase risk of what? | Type 2 diabetes Heart disease Metabolic syndrome Stroke Cancers of the digestive system High cholesterol High blood sugar |
| Tell me about lipids | Fats Made of C,H,O Found in cell membranes Cholesterol, steroid hormones, waxes, triglycerides, phospholipids Nonpolar and/or amphipathic Main func: energy storage, insulation, cell membrane, chemical messaging |
| Too many lipids increase risk of? | Weight gain High LDL cholesterol Heart disease Stroke Type 2 diabetes |
| Tell me about proteins | C,H,O,N,S Amino acids bond to form polypeptides that fold up into functional structure 1. structure 2. hormones 3. contractile 4. transport 5. storage 6. enzymatic 7. protection |
| Tell me about nucleic acids | C,H,O,N,P DNA - contain genetic info; RNA - regulate protein production, enzymes, ATP - energy molecule Nucleotides covalently bond to form DNA or RNA polymer |
| What does cell theory explain about life? | All living things consist of at least 1 cell Cell is the basic functional unit of life New cells are made by existing cells Volume-to-volume area ratio: cells need to be small so that the plasma membrane can support the amount of molecule/ion diffusion |
| What are the cell types that life is organized by? | Prokaryotes: archaea bacteria Eukaryotes: plants animals protists fungi |
| Tell me about prokaryotes | Bacteria and archaea: No membranous organelles Single circular chromosome Smaller - .1-5 Um |
| Tell me about eukaryotes | Plants, fungi, animals, protists: Membranous organelles Multiple linear chromosomes Larger - 10-100 Um |
| Describe the structure of prokaryotes | a. Cell wall – made of peptidoglycan and it’s the structure and protection b. Capsule – adherence, virulence c. Pili – conjugation, adherence d. Fimbriae – host/surface attachment e. Nucleoid – dense region in cytosol for DNA f. Ribosome – produces |
| List the structure of eukaryotes | Nucleus Nucleolus Peroxisome Endoplasmic reticulum Plasma membrane Lysosome Golgi apparatus Cytoplasm Mitochondria Vacuole Plastid Cytoskeleton Flagella Cilia Cholesterol Familial hypercholesteremia |
| Define nucleus | Nuclear envelope: membrane enclosing the nucleus, protein-lined pores allow material to move in and out |
| Define nucleolus | Condensed region where ribosomes are formed |
| Define perioxisome | Metabolizes waste |
| Define endoplasmic reticulum (both) | Rough: a associated with ribosomes; makes secre4tory and membrane proteins Smooth: makes lipids |
| Define lysosome | Digests food and waste materials |
| Define golgi apparatus | Modifies proteins |
| Define mitochondria | Produces energy |
| Define plastid | Stores pigments |
| Tell me about cytoskeletons | Cell shape, structure, movement Three types of filaments: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules |
| Define centrosome | Organizes microtubules in animal cells |
| Define flagella | One or more structures that allow for locomotion |
| Define cilia | Numerous; movement of cells; moves substances along surface of the cell |
| Tell me about cholesterol | 1) We need it for lots of stuff – sex hormones, bile, cell membranes 2) Made in our liver or acquired from animal products in our diets 3) It moves through blood in lipoproteins |
| Tell me about familial hypercholesteremia | Genetic mutation of LDLR protein; affects 1:250 people worldwide; five classes of the disease 1) Total cholesterol levels of 350 – 1000 ng/dL 2) Normal is <200 ng/dL 3) Not many symptoms (sometimes fatty deposits on skin) but can cause heart disease |
| Tell me basics about cell respiration | From sugar to energy The process by which organisms/cells use chemical energy to make ATP Electrons are transferred from one compound to another in a series of chemical reactions to make ATP |
| What are the 4 steps of cell respiration | Glycolysis Pyruvate oxidation The citric acid cycle (Krebs Cycle) Electron transport chain |
| Tell me about glycolysis | Happens in the cytoplasm 1 glucose in, pyruvate out Uses 2 ATP, make 4 ATP, and makes 2 NADH 2 NADH No oxygen |
| Tell me about pyruvate oxidation | Pyruvate moves into the mitochondria matrix where it is oxidized This means part of the molecule is removed, creating a waste product of CO2 The remainder of the pyruvate gets attached to Coenzyme A created Acetyl CoA |
| Tell me about the citric acid cycle | Takes place in the mitochondria matrix Starts with acetyl CoA Makes energy molecules NADH, FADH 2, and ATP (2) Yes aerobic |
| Tell me about the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation | In mitochondria inner membrane H20 is byproduct bc reduction of molecular O Makes lots of ATP with enzyme ATP synthase NADH & FADH2 give e- that move through the ETC Electrons stimulate protein complexes to pump H+ into intermembrane space |
| Tell me about the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation pt. 2 | O acts as final electron acceptor, combines with H+; H20 is product EC gradient gives free energy to power ATP synthase H+ diffuse through ATP synthase giving energy to phosphorylate ADP>ATP Aerobic |
| Tell me about anaerobic respiration | W/out O, glycolysis will continue but CAC & ETC/OP won't Some cells can temporarily tolerate a lack of O & will proceed with lactic acid or alc fermentation Some microbes are anerobic permanently & have anerobic respiration, using alt. final elec accept |
| Tell me about alc fermentation | 1. Bacteria and yeast make bread and beer 2. Pyruvate is decarboxylated to acetaldehyde, reduced to ethanol 3. CO2 is byproduct |
| How can not other things have respiration besides glucose? | • Carbohydrates other than glucose can enter glycolysis • Amino acids and triglycerides can be broken down for energy in CAC • Cholesterol, fatty acids, amino acids can be produced in CAC |
| What is a polysaccharide? | Glycogen and starch Hydrolysis cleaves glucose monomers Glucose is phosphorylated and enters glycolysis |
| What is a disacharide? | Sucrose and lactose Fructose can enter later steps of glycolysis Lactose isi hydrolyzed |
| What are the 2 types of energy? | Kinetic and potential |
| What is kinetic energy and Ex. | Energy of movement Ex. you running |
| What is potential energy and Ex. | Stored energy Ex. energy in chemical bonds (gas, food) |
| What is thermodynamics? | Study of energy transfer in physical systems. Bioenergetics studies energy flow in living systems |
| What is the law of thermodynamics? | The amount of energy in the universe is constant. Energy is transferred but is never created or destroyed. Entropy is constantly increasing in the universe. |
| What is free energy? | The available energy in a cell after energy is transferred and some is lost as heat |
| What is metabolism? | All the chemical reactions that capture, store, and release energy |
| What are metabolic pathways? | Linked chemical reactions in a cell that produce and break down biomolecules |
| What is anabolism? | Builds molecules (requires energy) |
| What is catabolism? | Breaks down molecules (releases energy) |
| Define photosynthesis | Solar energy used to make chemical energy |
| Define cellular respiration | Chemical energy makes more chemical energy |
| How does energy work in cells? | Energy is stored in chemical bonds (like glucose) Energy is transferred between different molecules until a final product is made Energy transfer happens when electrons are shifted from 1 compound to another |
| Tell me about enzymes | Energy in living systems All chemical reactions need a lil energy Activation energy happens by adding heat Biological catalysts lower activation energy & speed up chemical reaction Are proteins Don’t change total energy of a reaction Large |
| What are enzyme buddies? | Cofactors - small molecules or metal ions that interact with enzymes to help them function: iron, zinc, magnesium, iodine, copper Coenzymes - small organic molecules made from vitamins Ex) vitamin C, D |
| Tell me about energy from sunlight | In photosynthesis, CO2, H20 and sunlight are converted into glucose and O Most of the O in our atmosphere is produced by organisms that photosynthesize All plants, algae, and some bacteria |
| Chemical equation for photosynthesis is? | Sunlight + 6CO2 + 6H2O > C6H12O6 + 6O2 (light energy > chemical energy) |
| Tell me about the leaf sheep | These are one of the few animals that can photosynthesize. They do it by munching on sea weed and storing the chloroplast to use for energy production |
| Define autotroph | Organism that make their own energy source |
| Define heterotroph | Can't make their own food, like animals; must consume other organisms |
| Define electromagnetic radiation | Energy from the sun that can be lower to very high energy |
| How does chlorophyll utilize visible light? | Pigment molecules absorb and reflect certain wavelengths of light |
| Where does photosynthesis take place for each organism? | Eukaryotes: chloroplasts Bacteria: plasma membrane |
| Tell me more about photosynthesis in plants | Mesophyll tissue contains most chloroplasts and pores in the leaves called stomata allows gas exchange |
| Define thykaloid | Flat membranous structures stacked on top of another; chlorophyll embedded in membrane; interior is lumen |
| Define stroma | Fluid within the chloroplast |
| What are the 2 parts of photosynthesis | Light-dependent reaction Light-indepenent reaction |
| Define light-dependent reaction | Energy from the sun is used to stimulate chlorophyll and make energy carriers |
| Define light-independent reaction | The Calvin Cycle; carbon fixation; dependent on the light reactions; three stages; makes sugars |
| Tell me about light-dependent | Takes place within thykaloid membranes Photosystem membrane proteins embedded with chlorophyll Solar energy is transformed to chemical energy Proton gradient is established to activate ATP synthase |
| Tell me about light-indepedent | Calvin cycle Carbon fixation Takes place in the stroma NADPH & ATP are used to synthesize sugar compounds from CO2 Energy carrier molecules act as short-term storage; sugars are long-term storage of energy 3 stages: fixation, reduction, regeneration |
| Name the 3 tenets of cell theory | All living things are made of cells A cell is the smallest unit of life All cells arise from other cells |
| Are humans diploid or haploid cellular? | Diploid... but each gamete contains a haploid number of chromosomes |
| Tell me about cell reproduction | Cells divide to multiply Mitosis for growth of organisms, tissue repair, old cell replacement Meiosis for making gametes (sexual reproduction) |
| Tell me about the cell cycle | 1. Mitosis – cells grow and divide to make 2 identical daughter cells during the cell cycle 2. Two major phases 3. Interphase and the mitotic phase |
| Tell me about cell division: mitosis | 1. Happens in somatic cells; results in 2 identical daughter cells 2. Nuclear division after interphase: a. Divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase 3. Cytokinesis – cytoplasmic division |
| Tell me about sexual reproduction | 1. The fusion of 2 specialized cells called gametes, or sex cells 2. Gametes (haploid) have half the ploidy level as the parent (diploid) cell 3. A zygote is created when 2 gametes are joined in fertilization |
| Tell me about meiosis | Reductive division of a diploid cell to produce haploid gametes 1 parent cell produces 4 haploid gametes 1 round of DNA rep, 2 rounds of cell division Like mitosis but with 2 stages of PMAT in meiosis 1 & meiosis 2 Extra steps for genetic diversity |
| Tell me about prophase 1 | synapsis & recombination 1. Duplicated homologous chromosomes come together during synapsis and align chromosomes 2. Genetic information can be exchanged between non-sister chromatids during crossing over |
| Why do we need meiosis? | 1. Asexual reproduction (fission) a. Faster and creates genetic clones b. All members of a species can procreate c. But doesn’t allow for genetic diversity (mutations do provide some diversity) |
| Tell me about meiosis in humans specifically | Gametogenesis: spermatogenesis, oogenesis Location: gonads: testes, ovaries |
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