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| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Renaissance | A rebirth of Greco Roman civilization and classical antiquity, generally dated 1350 to 1550 |
| Jacob Burckhardt | Swiss historian and art critic who created the concept Renaissance in his 1860 book The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy |
| The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy | Jacob Burckhardts 1860 book that portrayed Italy in the 14th and 15th centuries as the birthplace of the modern world |
| Burckhardts view of the Renaissance | He saw revival of antiquity, perfecting of the individual, and secularism as distinguishing features of the Renaissance |
| Criticism of Burckhardt | He exaggerated the individualism and secularism of the Renaissance and failed to recognize the depth of religious sentiment during the Renaissance |
| Importance of Burckhardt | He established the framework for many modern interpretations of the Renaissance |
| Classical antiquity | The ancient Greek and Roman world whose ideas, literature, philosophy, art, and culture were revived during the Renaissance |
| Renaissance revival of classical antiquity | Italian intellectuals became intensely interested in Greek and Roman culture and attempted to connect Greco Roman philosophy with Christian thought |
| L uomo universale | The ideal Renaissance person who was well rounded and capable of achievement in many different areas of life |
| Renaissance Man | Another name for l uomo universale, meaning a well rounded person skilled in many different areas |
| Medici family | A powerful Florentine family that expanded from cloth production into commerce, real estate, and banking |
| Medici Bank | A major European bank centered in Florence that became one of the greatest banks in Europe during the 15th century |
| Medici Bank branches | The Medici Bank had branches in Venice, Milan, Rome, Avignon, Bruges, London, and Lyons |
| Medici industrial interests | The Medici family had controlling interests in wool, silk, and alum mining |
| Medici and the papacy | The Medici were principal bankers for the papacy, giving them large profits and influence at the papal court |
| Decline of the Medici Bank | Poor leadership and bad loans caused the Medici Bank to decline near the end of the 15th century |
| 1494 Medici expulsion | The French expelled the Medici from Florence and confiscated their property, contributing to the collapse of the Medici financial organization |
| Italian peninsula | The region dominated by five major powers during the Renaissance including Milan, Venice, Florence, the Papal States, and Naples |
| Italian balance of power | A political system in which the major Italian powers attempted to prevent any one state from dominating the Italian peninsula |
| Five major Italian powers | Milan, Venice, Florence, the Papal States, and Naples |
| Renaissance city states | Independent Italian cities controlled by powerful ruling families that became centers of Renaissance culture |
| Mantua | An Italian city state ruled by the Gonzaga family and an important Renaissance center |
| Ferrara | An Italian city state that became an important Renaissance cultural center |
| Urbino | An Italian city state that became a major Renaissance cultural center |
| European invasions of Italy in the 1490s | France and Spain |
| Niccolo Machiavelli | Florentine political thinker who served the Florentine Republic and wrote The Prince |
| Machiavelli in Florence | He entered the Florentine Republic in 1498, served as secretary of the Council of Ten, and carried out diplomatic missions |
| The Prince | Machiavellis 1513 treatise on political power and the acquisition and expansion of political power |
| Machiavellis major concern | The acquisition and expansion of political power as a means to restore and maintain order |
| Machiavellis view of human nature | Humans are naturally self centered and rulers must understand this when exercising political power |
| Machiavellis view of morality | A ruler should not always be limited by Christian moral principles if doing so would prevent the ruler from gaining or maintaining political power |
| Machiavellis view of fear and love | A ruler should ideally be both loved and feared, but if forced to choose, it is safer for a ruler to be feared |
| Cesare Borgia | A ruthless political leader whom Machiavelli used as an example of an effective ruler |
| Machiavelli and medieval political thought | Machiavelli rejected the medieval idea that rulers should always base political behavior on Christian moral principles and instead emphasized political power and practical results |
| Machiavelli and the New Monarchs | New monarchs used strategies that increased royal power, weakened nobles, centralized government, and sometimes relied on ruthless methods |
| Individualism | The Renaissance emphasis on the importance of the individual and the development of personal abilities |
| Renaissance individualism | The belief that people should develop their own talents, ideas, and potential rather than relying entirely on traditional authorities |
| Humanism | A Renaissance way of thinking based on human nature, human accomplishments, and the study of Greek and Roman classical literature and liberal arts |
| Humanists | Renaissance scholars who studied classical Greek and Roman works and emphasized human potential and achievement |
| Petrarch | The father of Italian Renaissance humanism who emphasized the study of classical Latin |
| Petrarch and the Middle Ages | Petrarch was one of the first to characterize the Middle Ages as a period of darkness and ignorance of classical antiquity |
| Civic humanism | A form of humanism in Florence that connected classical learning with active participation in civic and political life |
| Leonardo Bruni | A humanist, Florentine patriot, and city chancellor who wrote a biography of Cicero called The New Cicero |
| Humanists and government | Humanists believed the study of humanities should be used in service of the state |
| Liberal arts curriculum | History, moral philosophy, eloquence, letters, poetry, mathematics, astronomy, and music |
| Secularism | Thinking about the world in a non religious way, influenced by Greek and Roman ideas |
| Renaissance secularism | An increased interest in worldly life, wealth, politics, art, literature, and human accomplishments alongside religion |
| Secular Renaissance history | Humanists increasingly wrote history with attention to human actions and worldly events rather than viewing everything primarily through religion |
| Renaissance wealth and secularism | Increased urban wealth created new opportunities for people to enjoy worldly goods and experiences |
| Guillaume Dufay | A composer associated with using secular tunes as melodies for Masses |
| Secular Renaissance writers | Boccaccio, Castiglione, Machiavelli, Erasmus, Thomas More, and Valla |
| Pico della Mirandola | Renaissance humanist who wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man |
| Oration on the Dignity of Man | Pico della Mirandolas famous Renaissance work emphasizing human free will, self determination, and unlimited human potential |
| Human potential according to Pico | Humans possess free will and can shape their own spiritual and intellectual destiny |
| Johannes Gutenberg | German inventor who advanced printing technology by using individually cast metal movable type |
| Printing press | Technology that allowed books and ideas to be reproduced much more quickly and cheaply |
| Chinese printing | Chinese civilizations had already developed woodblock printing and movable type before Gutenberg |
| Gutenberg improvement | Gutenberg made individual letters out of metal that could be rearranged and reused |
| Gutenberg Bible | The first major book in the West produced using metal movable type, completed around 1455 to 1456 |
| Printing press and literacy | The printing press helped increase literacy by making books more available and affordable |
| Printing press and vernacular languages | Printed books became increasingly available in languages spoken by ordinary people rather than only Latin |
| Printing press and Reformation | The printing press allowed reformers ideas such as Luthers to spread rapidly |
| Printing press and exploration | Maps and navigation charts could be copied and distributed more easily, supporting exploration |
| Perspective | An artistic technique using mathematics, grids, and vanishing points to create the appearance of three dimensional space |
| Chiaroscuro | An artistic technique using strong contrasts between light and dark to create depth and dramatic effects |
| Sfumato | An artistic technique that blends colors and outlines smoothly so that forms appear less sharply defined |
| Contrapposto | A pose in which a figures weight is shifted onto one leg while the other leg is relaxed, creating an S shaped curve |
| Contrapposto origin | The Greeks developed the classical sculpture technique of contrapposto |
| Pyramid configuration | A geometric arrangement of figures in a triangular or pyramid shape to create balance and stability |
| Fresco | A painting technique in which artists paint on wet plaster, commonly used on walls and ceilings in Italian churches |
| Oil on canvas | A painting medium that became especially important during the Renaissance and allowed Northern Renaissance artists to achieve detailed realism and brilliant color |
| Italian Renaissance art | Art that emphasized realistic human forms, technical mastery, perspective, and often fresco painting in churches |
| Northern Renaissance art | Art that emphasized extraordinary detail, realism, illuminated manuscripts, wooden panel paintings, stained glass, and oil painting |
| Italian Renaissance artists | Giotto, Masaccio, Botticelli, Donatello, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo |
| Northern Renaissance artists | Jan van Eyck, Albrecht Durer, and Pieter Bruegel |
| Giotto | Italian painter and architect who broke from rigid Byzantine styles by introducing greater realism, human emotion, and three dimensional depth |
| Giottos importance | He helped lay the groundwork for the Italian Renaissance by making figures more realistic and emotionally expressive |
| Masaccio | Early Renaissance painter considered a founder of Renaissance painting who mastered perspective and painted human figures realistically |
| Masaccios importance | He was among the first painters to portray human beings as realistic three dimensional figures |
| Sandro Botticelli | Early Renaissance painter known for a decorative linear style and works including Birth of Venus |
| Birth of Venus | Botticellis painting that represents the revival of classical mythology during the Renaissance |
| Donatello | Early Renaissance sculptor who revived classical sculpture and used contrapposto |
| Donatellos David | A famous Renaissance sculpture that was the first freestanding nude male sculpture since classical antiquity |
| Leonardo da Vinci | Renaissance artist, sculptor, inventor, architect, scientist, and engineer who represented the ideal Renaissance Man |
| Leonardo da Vincis Renaissance Man qualities | He connected knowledge from different disciplines to create new ideas and discoveries |
| Mona Lisa | Leonardo da Vincis famous painting known for its realistic portraiture and use of sfumato |
| The Last Supper | Leonardo da Vincis famous mural depicting Jesus and his disciples |
| Leonardos Notebooks | Collections of Leonardo da Vincis observations, drawings, inventions, scientific ideas, and studies |
| Raphael | High Renaissance artist known for balanced, harmonious compositions and works such as School of Athens and his Madonnas |
| School of Athens | Raphaels famous High Renaissance painting depicting important classical philosophers and scholars |
| Raphaels Madonnas | Paintings of the Virgin Mary that demonstrate the harmony, balance, and ideal beauty of High Renaissance art |
| Raphael and Michelangelo | They were major High Renaissance artists who competed for important artistic commissions |
| Raphaels death | His death helped contribute to the development of the new artistic style known as Mannerism |
| Michelangelo | High Renaissance painter, sculptor, and architect known as The Divine M |
| Michelangelos importance | He greatly elevated the social status of the artist and demonstrated the importance of artistic genius |
| Creation of Adam | Michelangelos famous Sistine Chapel painting showing God giving life to Adam |
| Last Judgement | Michelangelos monumental fresco on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel |
| Pieta | Michelangelos sculpture depicting Mary holding the body of Jesus |
| St Peters Basilica | Major Renaissance architectural project in Rome in which Michelangelo served as an architect |
| Jan van Eyck | Northern Renaissance painter and one of the earliest major artists to use oil paint |
| Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride | Jan van Eycks famous painting known for detailed realism and the use of oil paint |
| Albrecht Durer | Northern Renaissance artist who mastered perspective and theories of proportion and connected Northern and Italian Renaissance artistic traditions |
| Adoration of the Magi | A work by Albrecht Durer demonstrating Northern Renaissance attention to detail and Italian Renaissance influences |
| Pieter Bruegel | Flemish Renaissance painter and printmaker famous for landscapes and scenes of peasant life |
| Italian versus Northern Renaissance art | Italian art emphasized the human form, perspective, idealized figures, and frescoes while Northern art emphasized detail, realism, oil painting, manuscripts, panel paintings, and Gothic settings |
| New Monarchs | Renaissance rulers who strengthened royal authority by centralizing government, weakening nobles, increasing taxation, and reducing dependence on representative institutions |
| Renaissance Kings | Another name for the New Monarchs who expanded royal power during the late 15th and early 16th centuries |
| France New Monarchs | Charles VII and Louis XI were French rulers who strengthened royal authority and centralized the French state |
| Charles VII | French king who strengthened royal authority by gaining the right to levy the taille |
| Louis XI | French king known as the Spider King who strengthened royal power and weakened nobles |
| Gabelle | A French tax on salt |
| Taille | An annual direct French tax on land or property |
| Charles VII and the taille | Charles VII gained the right to levy the taille without needing additional approval from the Estates General |
| Estates General | French representative assembly whose political influence decreased as the monarchy gained independent taxing power |
| Concordat of Bologna | A 1516 agreement between Francis I of France and Pope Leo X that gave the French Crown power to appoint high ranking church officials |
| Francis I | French king who gained the power to appoint high ranking church officials through the Concordat of Bologna |
| England New Monarch | Henry VII, the first Tudor monarch, who came to power after the War of the Roses |
| War of the Roses | English civil conflict between the houses of Lancaster and York that ended with Henry VII becoming king |
| Henry VII | First Tudor king of England who centralized royal power after the War of the Roses |
| Court of Star Chamber | English royal court used by Henry VII to weaken powerful and unruly nobles |
| Henry VII and torture | The Star Chamber could use harsh methods, including torture, to obtain confessions from nobles accused of wrongdoing |
| Henry VII and the middle class | Henry VII relied on middle class advisors rather than powerful nobles to strengthen royal control |
| Henry VII and minor nobility | Henry VII supported minor nobles and merchants to weaken the power of the high nobility |
| Spain New Monarchs | Ferdinand and Isabella who united the strongest Spanish kingdoms through marriage and strengthened royal authority |
| Ferdinand and Isabella | Monarchs who ruled Aragon and Castile and used marriage, religion, and centralized authority to strengthen Spain |
| Union of Aragon and Castile | The marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella joined the two strongest Spanish kingdoms while each retained many separate institutions |
| Spanish political differences | Aragon and Castile maintained separate parliaments, courts, laws, coinage, customs, languages, and political institutions |
| Spanish Inquisition | A religious institution established in 1478 to enforce Catholic orthodoxy, especially among converts suspected of secretly practicing Judaism |
| Expulsion of Jews from Spain | Ferdinand and Isabella expelled professing Jews from Spain in 1492, causing roughly 150000 to 200000 people to flee |
| Expulsion of Muslims from Spain | Muslim populations were also persecuted and expelled as Spain sought religious uniformity |
| Ottoman Turks | Muslim rulers who built a large empire across former Byzantine, Balkan, Middle Eastern, and North African territories |
| Fall of Constantinople | The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 that ended the Byzantine Empire |
| Constantinople | Capital of the Byzantine Empire that was conquered by Ottoman forces in 1453 |
| Mehmet II | Ottoman sultan who conquered Constantinople in 1453 |
| Ottoman cannons | Large cannons used by the Ottomans to bombard and breach the walls of Constantinople |
| Byzantine Empire | The eastern continuation of the Roman Empire that ended when the Ottomans conquered Constantinople in 1453 |
| Why the Ottomans threatened Europe | They controlled vast territories, had a powerful military, expanded rapidly into Europe, and controlled strategic areas around the Mediterranean |
| Ottoman expansion | The Ottomans conquered territory from the Seljuk Turks, Byzantine Empire, Bulgaria, Serbia, Bosnia, Albania, the Balkans, and parts of North Africa |
| Ottoman control of Rhodes | The Ottomans captured the Christian island of Rhodes in the 16th century |
| Charles V | Habsburg ruler and Holy Roman Emperor who repeatedly fought the Ottoman Turks along his eastern frontier |
| Early Protestant reformers | John Wyclif and Jan Hus |
| John Wyclif | English theologian who attacked papal authority and medieval Christian practices and argued that the Bible should be the sole authority for Christians |
| Lollards | Followers of John Wyclif who continued his reform ideas |
| Wyclifs view of papal authority | He believed there was no scriptural basis for papal claims to temporal authority and argued that popes should lose their political authority and property |
| Wyclif and the Bible | Wyclif believed Christians should have access to the Bible in the vernacular and rejected practices that were not supported by Scripture |
| Wyclif and Catholic practices | He condemned practices such as pilgrimages and the veneration of saints because he believed they lacked scriptural support |
| Jan Hus | Czech reformer and chancellor of the University of Prague who called for reform of the Catholic Church |
| Hus criticism of the Church | Hus attacked clerical worldliness, corruption, and excessive papal power |
| Council of Constance | Church council that summoned Jan Hus to address accusations of heresy |
| Hus execution | Jan Hus was executed after being condemned as a heretic despite receiving a promise of safe conduct from Emperor Sigismund |
| Hussite Wars | Wars that followed the death of Jan Hus between his supporters and forces opposing the Hussite movement |
| Nepotism | The practice of popes and bishops favoring relatives by giving them church positions, privileges, or promotions |
| Corruption in the Catholic Church | Abuses such as simony, selling indulgences, nepotism, and worldly behavior among church officials |
| Immorality in the Renaissance Church | Criticism of worldly popes and clergy who pursued wealth, power, lavish lifestyles, and political influence |
| Ignorance among clergy | Many clergy members were poorly educated and could not properly read or translate the Latin Bible |
| Black Death and clergy | The deaths of many clergy during the Black Death led to the appointment of poorly trained replacements |
| Pluralism | The practice of one clergyman holding more than one church position at the same time |
| Absenteeism | A situation in which a clergyman was absent from the church he was supposed to serve and hired someone else to perform services |
| Simony | The buying and selling of church offices, positions, or privileges |
| Selling indulgences | The practice of selling documents that were presented as reducing punishment for sins and were used by the Church to raise money |
| Johann Tetzel | Church official who sold indulgences and became a major target of Martin Luthers criticism |
| Desiderius Erasmus | Christian humanist who promoted reform of the Church through education, inner piety, and criticism of abuses |
| Christian humanism | A movement that combined Renaissance humanism with Christianity and emphasized education, inner faith, and a return to early Christian sources |
| The Praise of Folly | Erasmus work that humorously criticized corruption and foolish behavior in society, especially among clergy |
| Erasmus and Church reform | Erasmus believed reform should focus on understanding the teachings of Jesus, education, early Christian sources, and common sense criticism of abuses |
| Martin Luther | German monk and professor who challenged Catholic Church practices and became the central figure of the Protestant Reformation |
| Luthers early life | Luther originally planned to become a lawyer but became a monk after surviving a severe storm and making a religious vow |
| Luther and the Augustinian Hermits | Luther entered the Augustinian religious order in Erfurt |
| Luther at Wittenberg | Luther became a professor at the University of Wittenberg |
| Luthers major concern | Achieving total assurance of salvation |
| Ninety Five Theses | Martin Luthers 1517 document criticizing the abuse of selling indulgences |
| Luther and indulgences | Luther criticized the sale of indulgences because he believed salvation could not be purchased |
| Luther and the printing press | The printing press allowed copies of Luthers ideas to spread rapidly throughout Germany |
| Lutheranism | The Christian movement that developed from Martin Luthers teachings and became a major Protestant tradition |
| Protestant Reformation | Religious movement that challenged Catholic Church authority and practices and led to the creation of Protestant churches |
| Thomas More | English humanist who wrote Utopia and translated Greek works into Latin |
| Utopia | Thomas Mores 1516 work describing an imaginary island with an ideal society while criticizing economic, social, and political problems of his own time |
| Meaning of Utopia | The word Utopia comes from Greek and means nowhere |
| Erasmus writings | The Handbook of the Christian Knight, Annotations, and The Praise of Folly |
| Handbook of the Christian Knight | Erasmus work emphasizing Christian living, inner piety, and the idea that Christianity should guide life |
| Annotations | Erasmus detailed commentary on the Vulgate Bible |
| Lorenzo Valla | Italian humanist who studied classical Latin and sought to restore proper Classical Latin usage |
| The Elegances of the Latin Language | Lorenzo Vallas work that examined proper Classical Latin and established a new literary standard |
| Baldassare Castiglione | Renaissance author who wrote The Book of the Courtier |
| The Book of the Courtier | Castigliones 1528 handbook describing the ideal European aristocrat and courtier |
| Ideal courtier | A person with natural grace and talent, strong character, physical and intellectual education, classical learning, and the ability to display accomplishments modestly |
| Giovanni Boccaccio | Italian Renaissance writer who wrote The Decameron and presented society from a more secular perspective |
| The Decameron | Boccaccios collection of stories about ten young people who flee Florence during the plague and tell stories to pass the time |
| Boccaccio and religion | The Decameron reflects basic Christian values while presenting Renaissance society in a largely secular manner |
| Renaissance versus Middle Ages | The Renaissance emphasized humanism, individualism, secularism, classical antiquity, and political realism while the Middle Ages emphasized scholasticism, religion, the afterlife, and feudal duties |
| Scholasticism | Medieval intellectual tradition that used reason and philosophy to understand and explain Christian theology |
| Renaissance secular political realism | The Renaissance approach of examining politics based on human behavior, power, and practical results rather than primarily on religious morality |
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