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3.1.1 UNPRINTED
Psycology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Processes of memory | how the information flows through the memory system. Information is detected by senses, stored for later use and retrieved when needed |
| Cognitive psychologists | describe how information flows through mental systems |
| Encoding | (input) information taken from the senses is adapted to a form that can be stored in the brain: Visual Acoustic Semantic |
| Visual | (mental imagery) |
| Acoustic | (an inner voice/ear) |
| Semantic (Encoding) | (knowledge of meanings) |
| Storage | how we hold memories in the physical neural structure of the brain for however long it is stored |
| Retrieval | (output) the process of bringing information from the brain's storage so it can be used |
| Short term memory | information from the senses that is paid attention to is held for a short duration (approx. 18 secs), encoded acoustically |
| Long term memory | Information from the short term memory that is rehearsed, either through maintenance (repeated again and again) or elaborative (given meaning) Episodic memory Semantic memory Procedural memory Most memories contain a combination of different types |
| Semantic memory | memories for facts or meaning, recalled consciously and put into words (declarative) |
| Episodic memory | how personal experiences and events are remembered, recalled consciously and put into words (declarative) |
| Procedural memory | Unconscious memories of how to do things/skills, hard to put into words (non-declarative) |
| Episodic and Semantic memory are proved to be separate because | Tulving (in his experiment described in paper 2) showed activation in the temporal and frontal lobes for episodic memories and more activation in the parietal and occipital lobes for semantic memories |
| Procedural is separate from the other two because | HM had his hippocampus removed to help cure epileptic fits, destroying his ability to make new episodic or semantic memories, but not new procedural skills, suggesting it is a separate process in different brain regions |
| Multistore Model of Memory | Created by Atkinson and Shiffrin (cognitive psychologists) to describe how information flows through sensory, short and long term memory. |
| Multistore Model of Memory Diagram | |
| Multistore Model of Memory Explanation | Information enters sensory register from the environment. The small percent of information paid attention to is put in STM. If memory is rehearsed it is passed to LTM and is passed back to STM through retrieval. Information can be lost at any stage. |
| Rehearsal methods | Maintenance: information is repeated Elaborative: information is given meaning |
| Sensory Register (SR) qualities | Coding: Depends on the sense organ: ‘modality specific’. Capacity: Very large. Unlimited, due to all info from all senses Duration: Depends on sense. Around 250 ms |
| Short term memory (STM) qualities | Coding: Acoustic - inner voice Capacity: 7 pieces of information (plus or minus 2) Duration: 18 seconds |
| Long term memory (LTM) qualities | Coding: Usually semantic - meaning Capacity: Very large - potentially unlimited Duration: Lifetime (older people can remember things from youth) |
| Multistore Model of Memory Evaluation | Research (Clive Wearing only has STM not LTM) demonstrates separate stores Too simplistic, there are multiple types of LTM and STM (now called working memory (both auditory and visual)) (K.F. only had LTM not STM and could still make memories) |
| Serial position effect | the chance of remembering an item of information from a list depends on the position in the list it was at. Primacy effect Recency effect Middle items are less likely as has not been rehearsed and has been replaced in STM by newer information |
| Primacy effect | start are more likely as they had more time to be rehearsed |
| Recency effect | end are more likely as they are still in STM |
| Murdock’s serial position curve study | Aims: investigation on existence of separate LTM and STM, and how no. items on a list affects recall. Method: Participants listened to 10-40 words and recalled as many as possible. Results + conclusion: Serial position effect |
| Murdock’s serial position curve study Evalutaion (pros) | Highly controlled conditions increasing confidence any change measured is result of independent variable Standardised procedures were used allowing other researchers to replicate exactly to see if the findings are reliable Practical applications |
| Murdock’s serial position curve study Evalutaion (cons) | As a laboratory study can lead to participants not behaving naturally so may not be applicable to how memory works in normal life. Highly artificial task lowers external validity, and may not be able to apply results to day to day life memory use. |
| Reconstructive memory | suggests recalling memories is an active process of reconstructing the memory (not always accurately) from smaller remembered parts. Parts of the memories are changed to fit our schemas. Gaps are filled with information that makes sense to us. |
| ‘Effort after meaning’ | suggests we remember overall meaning but take mental effort to interpret the memory in ways we understand |
| Bartlett | (1932) thought memory was reconstructive, and memories are recreated actively using what they already know about the world. He believed we use schemas as a mental shortcut to understanding the world and remembering our experiences. |
| schemas | packages of knowledge about things) |
| Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study (aim) | test theory of reconstructive memory by demonstrating how cultural schemas/bias can alter memories |
| Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study (method) | Told a native American folklore story to English participants who didn't know it. Using repeated reproduction (the same person repeatedly recalling, sometimes after 10 years) and serial reproduction (participants telling the story to another person). |
| Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study (results) | Overall meaning was remembered but omissions were made, certain things were changed (e.g. boats not canoes) and rationalisations happened, e.g. missing out ghosts and remembering it as a war between two tribes. |
| Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study (conclusions) | people don't remember details accurately, we reconstruct memories by using pre-existing knowledge and to match schema. |
| Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study (evaluating it) | Supports his theories (reconstructive memory and effort after meaning) Not all memories are reconstructed, those with emotional meaning generally aren’t Can be applied to real-life (e.g. if two witnesses have different accounts) |
| Factors affecting the accuracy of memory | the accuracy of recall can vary depending on when and how the memories are created/recalled Interference Context False memories |
| Interference | when two lots of information become confused. Proactive: when old info affects recall of new info Retroactive: when new info affects recall of old info |
| Context | When information is encoded and recalled in the same context it is more likely to be accurate, as the location may act as a trigger for the recall. |
| False memories | memories of events that seem true but didn’t happen. They may have been implanted or just remembered differently, possibly due to the reconstructive nature of memory |
| Factors affecting the accuracy of memory (evaluation) (pros) | Schmidt: more times someone moves home less they remember childhood street names (retroactive) Godden+Baddeley found info learned underwater by divers could recall it better underwater (context) Applied in real life e.g using eye witness testimony |
| Factors affecting the accuracy of memory (evaluation) (cons) | research is often conducted in artificial environments with unusual activities that cannot be generalised |
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