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Psych Ch. 4
Section 2: Child and Adolescent Development
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What does the information processing model focus on? | how children acquire, store, and use knowledge |
| What does the three layer model of information processing consist of? | Focus of Attention / Sensory Register Working Memory Long-Term Memory |
| What is the sensory register? | initial stimuli ( see, hear, feel, taste, and smell) from the environment are briefly held |
| What is the working memory? | items of information are temporarily held for encoding or processing |
| What is the long-term memory? | relatively permanent storage of information. Duration is long and capacity is very large, perhaps unlimited |
| Where are executive functions located in the three layer model of information processing? | Focus of Attention |
| What are the four executive functions? | Working Memory, Cognitive Flexibility, Inhibitory Control, and Metacognition |
| What is cognitive flexibility? What is another word phrase for it? | ability to switch from one cognitive activity or perspective to another attention shifting |
| What is inhibitory control? What is a component of inhibitory control? What does it mean? | ability to inhibit processing irrelevant information or to suppress a response Selective Attention: attending to task-relevant input while suppressing irrelevant input |
| What is metacognition? | thinking about your thinking; cognition that reflects on, monitors, or regulates other cognition |
| What is the general age trend for information processing? | as our prefrontal cortex becomes more mature, our executive functions tend to improve |
| What are general age trends for information processing? Adolescence, Infants, Childhood | Processing speed increases (peaking in adolescence) Infants begin to pay attention and resist distractions; prefer to look at increasingly complex things Inhibition improves throughout childhood (peaking in late teens) |
| What is Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)? How does it relate to executive function/prefrontal cortex? | neurobehavioral disorder characterized by hyperactivity, low impulse control, and inattention |
| How does ADHD relate to executive function/prefrontal cortex? | Scientists believe that poor executive functions underlie some forms of ADHD Both genes and environment contribute to ADHD |
| What is inclusion? | creating learning environments that enable learners with special education needs to fully participate in the school community. Some groups expand the term beyond students with disabilities to inclusion of marginalized groups |
| How can you reduce the cognitive and executive load of your students? 6 ways | Limit your talking Reduce distractions in your classroom Increase your learners’ expertise Provide external storage. Carve problems into smaller subtasks that can be performed sequentially Minimize learner’s anxiety in your classroom, when possible |
| What is the general age trend for working memory? | capacity improves Control of attention |
| What is the general age trend for executive function? What test/task is used for preschoolers and early elementary? What about older children? | Improve • For preschoolers and early elementary, tests include sorting by color and then switch to sorting by shape • For older children, Stroop task (saying the color the word is instead of the word) |
| What is important to remember about memory? | Use it or lose it: If we do not give something our attention, it is not very likely that it will make it further than our sensory memory. |
| What is memory? What are the two types? | not an exact replica of an object, event, or experience Fuzzy traces and verbatim traces |
| What are fuzzy traces? | vague memories, or the gist of an experience distilled gist of an experience rather than an exact memory |
| What are verbatim traces? | detailed accurate memories |
| What are the three reasons learners forget things? | Decay, Retrieval Failure, Interference |
| What is decay? | Memory decays over time and loses strength if not used |
| What is retrieval failure? | Learners may know something but be unable to retrieve it |
| What is interference? | existing information in long term memory prevents accurate retrieval of new information, or information learned recently prevents accurate retrieval of older information Existing information prevents accurate retrieval of new information, or vice versa |
| What is encoding? What are the three strategies? | process of putting information into long-term memory; process of forming mental representations of information for storage. Rehearsal, Organization, Elaboration |
| What is rehearsal? | mentally repeating information over and over (in working memory) |
| What is organization? | organizing or clustering related items into groups |
| What is elaboration? | creating associations between what you are learning and what you already know; creating visual or verbal links or representations to associate two or more items |
| What is the general age trend for memory? | Memorization skills increase and memory strategies become more effective as children age |
| What are age trends for infancy/toddlerhood for memory? | Have some long-term memory Average age of first memory is 3–4 years |
| What are age trends for early childhood for memory? | Preschoolers often display good long-term memory • May need adult help/prompting • Memories are fragile and susceptible to interference |
| What are age trends for middle childhood for memory? Where do they improve? | More items in long-term memory Improvement in: • Remembering source of information • Metamemory • Remembering to do something in the future • Using effective memory strategies |
| What are age trends for adolescence for memory? | Memory quality improves Memory strategies improve More likely to use elaboration |
| What is an important classroom implication for memory? | Connect knowledge using KWL Charts (Know, Want, Learned) • Help learners develop a broad knowledge base • Help learners activate relevant prior knowledge • Refer to content from other classes or from different units within your own class |
| Why do we remember emotional things more easily and vividly? | the amygdala |
| What are schemas (memory)? | an organized network of information |
| What is a type of memory scheme? What is it? What does it do? | script: a schema for how to do something or for an event. aka how to do something |
| What are mnemonics? What are two types? What do they do? | techniques for improving memory Acronym: takes the first letters of words to be remembered and combines them into a word or phrase Keyword Method: a keyword that sounds like the target word is chosen and then an image is linked with it |
| What are four strategies to teach your students for remembering? TCBC | Talk about what you want to be remembered and give reminders Combine verbal and visual information Build on prior knowledge Teach effective memory strategies (e.g., flashcards for rehearsal, organizing information, elaboration) |
| What are four more strategies to teach your students for remembering? ISTH | Increase exposure to what you want to be remembered Spaced vs. massed practice - no cramming Test students: Regular low-stakes testing Have your students write things down |
| Why do we want to give our students time (and maybe more time) to respond after we’ve asked them a question during a lesson? | increase class participation rates by as much as 30% |
| What is spaced practice? | multiple periods of practicing, or studying, over a period rather than in a single massed episode. Also referred to as distributed practice. |
| What is reasoning? What is problem solving? Not very important but still. | Reasoning: important skills such as critical thinking and problem solving, often involving inferences Problem Solving: type of reasoning |
| What is inductive reasoning/induction? | a child detects generalizations, rules, or regularities, often, but not always, through comparison and contrast their specific experience → generalize to everything My → every |
| What is deductive reasoning/deduction? | conclusion follows logically from a set of premises General knowledge base → more specific → conclusion Ex. All men are mortal → person is a man → so this person must be mortal |
| Is inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning more complex? Simplify each: | Deductive Reasoning DR: general to specific IR: specific to general |
| What predicts individual differences in memory? 2 things. | Children with Prior Knowledge learn new material about it easier Conversation helps learners store info and create schemas. Talking helps students retain memory longer & helps understanding/attention. |
| How should you prompt students' memory (retention)? | ask guiding, open-ended questions, follow learners' lead in convo |
| What are age trends for reasoning in infancy and toddlerhood? Problem solving; induction | Problem Solving: simple; trial and error Induction: may be born with it |
| Why do toddlers ask why? | "natural scientists"; Children seek logical, causal explanations about their world as early as 2 years and spontaneously give explanations by 3 years |
| What are age trends for reasoning in early childhood? | Capable of using deductive reasoning |
| What are age trends for reasoning in middle childhood? Deductive reasoning; what kind of thinking and reasoning (other than DR)? | Deductive Reasoning: "if-then” inference Limited Scientific thinking: ability to generate, test, and evaluate hypotheses against data Counterfactual Reasoning: imagining what the world be like now if things had been different in the past |
| What are age trends in adolescence? What do they still struggle with? | can better put what they know/have experienced aside and reason from data; can more effectively use scientific thinking Argumentation: presenting evidence to support your position Reasoning with abstract premises (later in adolescence) Ex. math theorem |
| What is computational thinking? Which age group is it found in? | a particular type of largescale problem-solving using computers Adolescents |
| How can we help promote reasoning in learners? 3 things | Increase knowledge Require your students to explain their answers and reasoning Use Feedback and modeling and ask students to reflect |
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